Program / Course 24: Apologetic Practicum / Lesson 4.4
What you will learn
- Explain five major areas of disagreement among the three traditions without caricature.
- State each tradition’s position in terms its members would accept.
- Separate what is a matter of official teaching from what is common opinion or popular belief.
- Describe disagreements to an outsider without taking sides unless you say plainly that you are doing so.
The big idea
A person who wants to explain Christianity to the public will sooner or later be asked why Christians disagree. A fair answer describes the main disputes, shows what each tradition holds and why, and does not hide the real stakes. The five areas treated here are authority, salvation, the sacraments, the saints and Mary, and the church itself. A good explainer can describe each view well enough that its members would say, ‘Yes, that is what is believed,’ and can also say which questions are still debated within each tradition.
Key terms
- Authority
- The source or sources by which the church decides what is true: Scripture, tradition, councils, bishops, or the Spirit.
- Sacrament (or mystery)
- A holy rite in which, according to the tradition, God acts through physical signs, such as baptism and the Eucharist.
- Theosis
- An Orthodox term for deification, the process by which a person comes to share in the life of God by grace.
- Justification by faith
- The Protestant teaching that a person is declared righteous before God by faith in Christ and not by works.
- Real presence
- The belief that Christ is truly present in the Eucharist. Traditions differ on how.
- Transubstantiation
- The Catholic teaching that the substance of bread and wine becomes that of the body and blood of Christ while appearances remain.
- Papal primacy
- The claim that the bishop of Rome has a special authority in the church. Its nature is disputed.
- Intercession of saints
- The practice of asking departed saints to pray for the living.
Background
Official teaching is found in the Catechism of the Catholic Church, in Orthodox liturgical texts and catechisms and in Protestant confessions such as the Augsburg Confession, the Heidelberg Catechism and the Westminster Confession. These sources should be used before popular summaries. Within each tradition, differences also exist. Lutheran, Reformed, Anglican, Baptist and Pentecostal churches differ among themselves, and Orthodox churches vary in custom, though they share doctrine.
Historians point out that the disagreements developed over time. The Great Schism between East and West was gradual, and the Reformation grew from late medieval debates about grace, indulgences and church authority. Some of the sharpest disagreements have softened in dialogue. In 1999 the Lutheran World Federation and the Catholic Church issued a joint declaration stating that some of the old condemnations about justification no longer apply to their partners’ teaching. Both sides state that differences remain.
This lesson describes. It does not rank the traditions. A student may in the end hold one of them, but the aim here is accuracy.
Step-by-step explanation
Step 1: Authority
Catholics hold that divine revelation comes through Scripture and Sacred Tradition, interpreted authentically by the Magisterium, with the pope as the successor of Peter. The First Vatican Council (1870) defined papal infallibility in defined teaching on faith and morals. Orthodox Christians hold that the church’s life, including Scripture, the councils and the fathers, is the bearer of truth, with the seven ecumenical councils especially authoritative, and that no single bishop has universal jurisdiction. Protestants hold that Scripture is the final authority, and that church teaching must be tested by it, though most honor the early creeds and some, such as Lutherans and Anglicans, give great weight to tradition.
Each side regards the other’s account as risky. Protestants fear that human teaching can bind consciences. Catholics fear fragmentation of interpretation. Orthodox Christians fear both papal centralization and an individualized reading.
Step 2: Salvation and grace
Catholic teaching, as defined at the Council of Trent, holds that justification is a real transformation by grace, received in baptism and growing through faith, hope and love and the sacraments, and that good works done in grace merit an increase in grace. Protestant Reformers taught that justification is God’s declaration of righteousness received by faith alone, with good works as its fruit. Reformed and Lutheran traditions differ on predestination, and Arminian and Wesleyan traditions differ again, as seen in the works of Arminius and Wesley.
Orthodox teaching speaks of salvation as healing and theosis, a participation in divine life, and is wary of the legal framework found in some Western views. The traditions use different vocabulary, and dialogues have suggested that some apparent conflicts are partly about language, though real differences remain.
Step 3: The sacraments
Catholics and Orthodox Christians have seven sacraments (or mysteries) and hold that Christ is truly present in the Eucharist. Catholics use the term transubstantiation. Orthodox teaching affirms a real change, though it commonly avoids precise philosophical language. Lutherans teach the real presence of Christ in, with and under the bread and wine. Reformed Protestants teach a real spiritual presence or feeding of the believer by faith, with some differences between Calvin and later Reformed writers. Many Baptist and other churches treat communion as a memorial, and speak of ordinances rather than sacraments.
Baptism is also contested. Catholics, Orthodox, Lutherans, Anglicans and many Reformed Christians baptize infants, and many Baptists baptize only believers who profess faith.
Step 4: Mary and the saints
Catholics and Orthodox honor Mary as Theotokos (God-bearer) and ask her and the saints to pray for them, as one asks living friends. Both traditions distinguish the veneration given to saints from the worship given to God alone. Catholics have defined the Immaculate Conception (1854) and the Assumption (1950), which Orthodox Christians do not accept as dogmas in that form, though Orthodox liturgy honors Mary’s holiness and her dormition. Protestants generally hold that Christ is the only mediator (1 Timothy 2:5), and so reject invocation of saints, though many honor Mary as mother of the Lord and the Protestant Reformers affirmed her perpetual virginity or special honor in varying degrees.
These differences concern both Scripture and practice, and carry deep devotional weight.
Step 5: The church and the future of unity
Catholics hold that the church of Christ subsists in the Catholic Church, led by the successor of Peter. Orthodox hold that the Orthodox Church is the one church of the creed, in unbroken continuity with the apostles. Protestants hold that the true church is found wherever the gospel is rightly preached and the sacraments rightly administered, and that it includes all true believers.
Because each sees the church differently, hopes for unity differ. For some, unity means return, for some a federation of traditions and for some a spiritual unity already existing. A fair explainer states these views as aims that their holders actually hold.
- Have I stated each tradition’s view from its own official sources?
- Where does the tradition’s official teaching end and popular belief begin?
- Is this a disagreement about substance or about the words used?
- Have I used loaded words for any side?
- Do I say plainly when I am giving my own view and not a neutral description?
- Which differences are within a tradition and not only between traditions?
Examples
Describing the Eucharist fairly
‘Catholics and Orthodox Christians hold that Christ is truly present in the bread and wine, though they speak of it differently. Lutherans also affirm his real presence. Reformed Christians affirm a spiritual presence received by faith, and many other Protestants see the meal as a memorial. All of them cite the words of institution (1 Corinthians 11:23 to 11:26).’ (Constructed summary.)
A caricature to avoid
‘Catholics think works save them, and Protestants think works do not matter.’ Both statements distort. Catholic teaching holds that grace comes first and works flow from it. Protestant teaching holds that works are the necessary fruit of a living faith. (Constructed example.)
Sorting official from popular
A person says, ‘Catholics worship Mary.’ The Catechism of the Catholic Church distinguishes the adoration due to God alone from the veneration given to saints. An individual may be careless in speech, but the official teaching draws that line. A fair statement names both what the church teaches and where critics think practice blurs the line. (Constructed example.)
Different perspectives
Catholic account
Catholic writers describe the disagreements as arising because other communities departed from the fullness of the apostolic faith, while holding that real faith and grace exist outside the visible Catholic Church and that unity is sought through dialogue.
Orthodox account
Orthodox writers describe the disagreements as consequences of the West’s departures from the common tradition of the first millennium, in doctrines such as the filioque and in the structure of authority, and they hold that the Orthodox Church has kept the faith unchanged.
Protestant account
Protestant writers describe the Reformation as a recovery of the gospel from medieval additions, and they differ among themselves on how much of earlier tradition to retain. Many contemporary Protestants, including some in the Reformed and Anglican traditions, speak warmly of the early church.
Historians’ account
Many historians argue that political, linguistic and cultural factors contributed to each division along with doctrine, and that both polemics and later memory sharpened differences. They also report that recent dialogues have cleared away some misunderstandings.
Why it matters
Almost every public conversation about Christianity runs into the question of why Christians disagree. A poor answer, such as that the traditions are the same underneath or that others are simply wrong, loses trust. A fair and informed one can show an outsider that these disagreements are about serious questions that Christians take seriously, and can honor members of each tradition by describing their faith as they would.
Common misunderstandings
Misunderstanding: The differences are only about words.
Correction: Some are partly verbal, as dialogues have shown. Others, such as papal authority or the role of the saints, are real differences that cannot be dissolved by clarifying vocabulary.
Misunderstanding: Every Protestant thinks alike.
Correction: Protestant churches differ widely on baptism, sacraments, church government and salvation. Any summary of Protestantism must say which group it describes.
Misunderstanding: Orthodox Christians are Eastern Catholics.
Correction: Orthodox churches are not in communion with Rome. Eastern Catholic churches use Eastern liturgy but are in communion with the pope. Mixing them up misdescribes both.
Misunderstanding: A fair description must be neutral about truth.
Correction: A fair description is accurate and respectful. You may hold that one tradition is right, so long as you do not misdescribe the others and are open about your own position.
Knowledge check
How do the three traditions differ on authority?
Catholics hold that Scripture and Tradition are interpreted by the Magisterium, with the pope as Peter’s successor. Orthodox hold that the whole life of the church, especially the councils and fathers, bears authority, with no universal jurisdiction for one bishop. Protestants hold that Scripture is the final norm, while differing on tradition.
What is the difference between justification as taught by the Reformers and by Trent?
The Reformers taught that justification is God’s declaration of righteousness received by faith alone. Trent taught that justification is a real inward renewal by grace, received in baptism and growing through faith, hope, love and the sacraments. The 1999 Lutheran-Catholic declaration found significant common ground while noting remaining differences.
Name two views of the Eucharist held by Protestants.
Lutherans teach the real presence of Christ in, with and under the bread and wine. Reformed Christians commonly teach a real spiritual presence received by faith. Many Baptist and other churches teach that it is a memorial or ordinance. These differ from Catholic and Orthodox teaching about the change in the elements.
Why is it important to distinguish official teaching from popular belief?
Popular beliefs in any tradition may be inaccurate or careless, and critics may judge a tradition by them. Official teaching, found in catechisms, confessions and liturgy, shows what the tradition actually holds. A fair description uses the official source and notes where practice differs.
How do the traditions understand the church differently?
Catholics say the church of Christ subsists in the Catholic Church under the pope and bishops. Orthodox say the Orthodox Church is the one church of the creed. Protestants say the true church is found wherever the gospel is rightly preached and the sacraments rightly administered, including all true believers.
Think it through
- Which of the five areas seems to you the deepest source of division, and why?
- Is there anything you have said about another tradition that you now doubt is accurate?
- How would you explain these differences to a nonbeliever without making them sound like trivia?
- What do you find most admirable in each tradition?
Independent assignment
A comparison table with sources
In your own notebook, write 700 to 900 words or make a table with notes. For each of the five areas (authority, salvation, sacraments, Mary and the saints, the church), write a two- or three-sentence statement for each tradition in terms its members would accept. Cite the official source you used (a catechism, confession or reliable reference). Then write a paragraph for one area in which you are explicit about where your own view lies, if it does, and where you are unsure. Keep this private.
Further study
- Catholic Church, Catechism of the Catholic Church The authoritative statement of Catholic teaching.
- Council of Trent (1545-1563), Canons and Decrees of the Council of Trent The Catholic definitions on justification and the sacraments.
- Westminster Assembly, The Westminster Confession of Faith A Reformed confession. Compare its treatment of Scripture and justification.
- Zacharias Ursinus and Caspar Olevianus, The Heidelberg Catechism A Reformed catechism, for the Protestant view of the sacraments.
- Timothy (Kallistos) Ware, The Orthodox Church An accessible account of Orthodox faith.
- First Vatican Council, Decrees of the First Vatican Council (including Pastor Aeternus on papal primacy and infallibility) The definition of papal primacy and infallibility.
- Matthew 16:18 A text central to the debate about Peter.
- 1 Timothy 2:5 One mediator between God and men.