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Course 17 · Lesson 6.1

What archaeology can show

12 minute read

Lessons in this course

Course 17 outline

Module 1: What Christians Mean by Scripture

  1. Revelation and inspiration: two different ideas
  2. Models of inspiration across the traditions
  3. Inerrancy and infallibility: what each term claims
  4. Reading in historical and literary context

Module 2: How the Canon Was Formed

  1. The formation of the Old Testament canon
  2. The formation of the New Testament canon
  3. The Apocrypha and the deuterocanonical books
  4. Protestant, Catholic and Orthodox canons compared

Module 3: The Text and Its Transmission

  1. How manuscripts were copied
  2. Variants and how scholars weigh them
  3. The Old Testament text: Masoretic text, Dead Sea Scrolls and Septuagint
  4. What the manuscript evidence shows and does not show

Module 4: Apparent Contradictions

  1. A method for testing a claimed contradiction
  2. Numbers, names and parallel accounts
  3. Differences among the Gospel accounts
  4. Tensions that remain and how traditions handle them

Module 5: Difficult Old Testament Passages

  1. Reading difficult passages honestly
  2. The conquest narratives and the question of violence
  3. Slavery in the ancient world and in the Bible
  4. How Christians have read hard texts: the church fathers to today

Module 6: Archaeology and Chronology

  1. What archaeology can show
  2. The limits of archaeological evidence
  3. Dating events: kings, exile and the exodus debate
  4. Genealogies, ages and calculations

Module 7: Scripture and Science

  1. Ancient cosmology and the opening chapters of Genesis
  2. Approaches to Genesis and science among Christians
  3. Augustine, accommodation and caution in interpretation

Module 8: Writing a Response

  1. Choosing and framing a problem
  2. Building a response from context and tradition
  3. Admitting what remains unresolved

All courses

Program / Course 17: Defending Scripture / Lesson 6.1

What you will learn

  • Describe how archaeologists find and date evidence and what kinds of evidence bear on the Bible.
  • Give examples of inscriptions and finds that confirm names, places and events mentioned in the Bible.
  • Give examples where archaeology has challenged traditional readings.
  • State what an archaeological confirmation does and does not establish.

The big idea

Archaeology has recovered a great deal about the world in which the Bible was written. Inscriptions mention biblical kings, cities, officials and events, and excavations show how ordinary people lived. These finds confirm that many persons and places in the Bible are real, and they show the setting of the stories. They have also challenged some traditional readings, such as the picture of a quick conquest of Canaan. A discovery can confirm that an event or person is historical. It cannot by itself establish a theological claim, and it can be interpreted in different ways.

Key terms

Archaeology
The study of the human past through material remains, such as buildings, tools, pottery, inscriptions and burials.
Stratigraphy
The study of the layers of a site. Deeper layers are generally older, and the order of layers helps to date finds.
Tell
A mound formed by the buildup of successive settlements on the same site over centuries.
Epigraphy
The study of inscriptions, including those on stone, clay tablets, seals and ostraca (pieces of broken pottery used for writing).
Radiocarbon dating
A method of dating organic materials by measuring the decay of carbon 14. It gives a range of dates, not an exact year.
Minimalist and maximalist
Labels for scholars who hold that the Bible is a poor guide to the history of ancient Israel (minimalist) and those who hold that it is a useful historical source (maximalist). Most scholars are between.

Background

Modern biblical archaeology began in the nineteenth century with explorers who identified ancient sites and with the decipherment of Egyptian hieroglyphs and Mesopotamian cuneiform. The discovery of libraries of clay tablets, such as the tablets from Nineveh, opened a literary world in which parallels to Genesis and other biblical books were found. Excavations in the twentieth century became more careful and more scientific. Today, archaeologists work with specialists in pottery, bones, plants and dating.

Early in the twentieth century, some scholars, including William Albright and his students, believed that archaeology would confirm the Bible’s history in almost every detail. Later work did not support such sweeping claims, and some reacted by treating the Bible as unreliable. Current scholarship is more cautious in both directions. It uses archaeology as one source among several, and it recognizes that the evidence is incomplete and often debated.

Step-by-step explanation

Step 1: Inscriptions that mention biblical persons and events

The Merneptah Stele, an Egyptian inscription from about 1208 before Christ, mentions Israel among peoples in Canaan. It is the earliest known mention of Israel outside the Bible. The Tel Dan inscription, from the ninth century before Christ and found in 1993, refers to the house of David, which most scholars take as evidence that David was remembered as the founder of a dynasty. The Mesha Stele speaks of Omri, king of Israel, and of Moab’s revolt.

Assyrian records mention Israelite and Judean kings: the Black Obelisk of Shalmaneser III shows a figure usually identified as Jehu, or his envoy, paying tribute, and Sennacherib’s account of his campaign in 701 says he shut up Hezekiah in Jerusalem like a bird in a cage. The Babylonian Chronicle records the capture of Jerusalem in 597. These records agree with the Bible on the broad outline of events, and they differ in perspective and in some details, as both sides were writing to their own ends.

Step 2: Places and structures

The Siloam inscription, found in the tunnel under Jerusalem, records the completion of a water tunnel, which many connect with the work of Hezekiah in 2 Kings 20:20. The Lachish reliefs from Sennacherib’s palace at Nineveh depict the siege of Lachish, which the Bible also mentions. Excavations at Capernaum have uncovered a first-century synagogue site and houses, and the Pool of Siloam in Jerusalem, mentioned in John 9, was identified in 2004 and 2005 as a first-century pool.

Some finds relate to the New Testament world. An inscription found at Caesarea in 1961 names Pontius Pilate as prefect of Judea. An ossuary, or bone box, found in Jerusalem in 1990 bears the name Caiaphas, and many scholars think it belonged to the high priest of the Gospels, though not all agree. A first-century inscription from Delphi mentions Gallio as proconsul of Achaia, which helps to date Paul’s time in Corinth (Acts 18:12).

Step 3: Customs and background

Archaeology also supplies the background. Tablets from Mesopotamia and Egypt illustrate the legal and social customs of the ancient Near East, and some parallels clarify practices in Genesis, such as adoption and inheritance. Tombs and houses show how people lived, what they ate, and how they buried their dead. Seals and ostraca provide names of officials and ordinary people that match names in the Bible, such as Gedaliah and Baruch, though identification of any individual seal with a biblical person is often debated.

This kind of evidence does not prove that a story happened. It shows that the story fits its setting, which is a different thing. Skeptics point out that a novel can also be accurate on background, and believers point out that a document that fits a real world is more likely to come from it. Both statements are reasonable.

Step 4: Where archaeology challenges traditional readings

Excavations at Jericho and Ai have not shown a destruction in the period that a literal reading of Joshua suggests, and scholars disagree about the dates. The pictures of patriarchal wealth in Genesis do not match any known period perfectly, and some details, such as camels in Genesis, are debated, with some scholars saying domesticated camels are attested only later and others saying isolated earlier use is possible. The size of David’s and Solomon’s kingdoms is argued about, with scholars such as Israel Finkelstein proposing a lower chronology for certain monuments and others defending the traditional dating.

These debates are open. A fair account notes that archaeology is incomplete, that interpretations change, and that absence of evidence is not always evidence of absence. It also notes that several scholars of high standing think the evidence does not support the Bible’s account in some respects. Students should read both sides and watch for claims that go beyond what the evidence shows.

  1. What is the difference between confirming that a person existed and confirming what the Bible says about that person?
  2. Why do you think the Tel Dan inscription was seen as so important?
  3. How should a reader respond when archaeology seems to conflict with a traditional reading?
  4. What would you want to know about a claimed discovery before accepting it?
  5. Why do scholars who agree on the facts sometimes disagree about what they show?
  6. How would you answer someone who says that archaeology proves the Bible, or disproves it?

Examples

The Tel Dan inscription

An Aramaic inscription found in 1993 in northern Israel mentions a king of Israel and a king of the house of David, probably as enemies. Before the discovery, some scholars doubted that David was a historical person. Most now accept that he was remembered as the founder of a dynasty, but the inscription does not tell how large his kingdom was.

The Pilate inscription

A stone found at Caesarea in 1961 carries part of a dedication mentioning Pontius Pilate, prefect of Judea. The Gospels name Pilate, and the Roman historian Tacitus also mentions him. The inscription fixes the title he used, which was prefect and not procurator as some sources later said.

Hezekiah’s tunnel

The tunnel in Jerusalem, about 530 meters long, carried water from the Gihon spring to a pool inside the city. The inscription describing workers meeting in the middle is in Hebrew, and is a well-known example of ancient writing. Whether it is the work in 2 Kings 20:20 is widely accepted, though not universally.

Different perspectives

Catholic

The Catholic Church has supported archaeological and historical study, and Catholic institutions such as the Pontifical Biblical Institute and the Ecole Biblique in Jerusalem have a long record of excavation. The Church holds that the faith does not depend on any particular discovery, and that research may refine understanding.

Orthodox

Orthodox churches care for many holy sites, including the Church of the Holy Sepulchre in a shared custody, and value the traditions about places. Orthodox scholars take part in archaeological work, and Orthodox tradition regards the Bible’s witness as arising within the life of the church.

Protestant (evangelical and conservative)

Many evangelical scholars hold that archaeology broadly supports the reliability of the Bible, citing finds such as the Tel Dan stele. They defend a traditional dating of key events, such as the exodus, while recognizing disputes. Some popular writers make claims that go beyond what scholars can support, which careful evangelicals criticize.

Protestant (mainline and critical)

Many scholars in this tradition regard archaeology as an essential check on the Bible’s historical claims and accept that some stories are better read as theological narratives. They hold that this does not diminish the Bible’s religious authority, which does not depend on historical precision.

Jewish and secular

Israeli archaeologists, including Jewish and secular scholars, have contributed heavily to the field, and their views range from maximalist to minimalist. Many secular scholars treat the Bible as one ancient source among others, to be tested against material evidence.

Why it matters

Claims about archaeology are among the most common in popular discussions of the Bible, and they are often overstated by both sides. Knowing what the discipline actually does, and what it has found, lets you read news reports and books with discernment. The topic also shows how historical questions can be separated from faith claims without being made irrelevant, which is a skill you will use in the next lessons on limits, chronology and genealogies.

Common misunderstandings

Misunderstanding: Archaeology has proven the Bible true.

Correction: It has confirmed many names, places and events, and it has helped explain the setting. It cannot prove miracles, inspiration or theological claims, and it has not confirmed every historical detail.

Misunderstanding: Archaeology has disproved the Bible.

Correction: It has challenged some traditional readings, but many of those challenges are debated. The absence of a find is often a result of the limits of excavation.

Misunderstanding: Every discovery announced in the news is accepted by scholars.

Correction: Many claims are disputed, such as supposed discoveries of Noah’s ark or the lost ark of the covenant. Check whether the claim has been published and reviewed by specialists.

Misunderstanding: Archaeologists are either believers who defend the Bible or atheists who attack it.

Correction: Archaeologists include people of many beliefs and none, and most are concerned with the evidence. Many believers and non-believers work together at the same sites.

Knowledge check

Name two inscriptions that mention biblical persons or peoples.

The Merneptah Stele, about 1208 before Christ, mentions Israel among peoples in Canaan. The Tel Dan inscription mentions the house of David. Other examples are the Mesha Stele, which mentions Omri, the Black Obelisk, which shows Jehu or his envoy, and the Caesarea inscription that names Pontius Pilate. Any two with a brief note of significance is a good answer.

What does it mean to say that archaeology confirms a biblical person or place?

It means that independent evidence shows the person or place existed in the setting the Bible describes. It does not mean that every detail the Bible gives is confirmed or that theological claims are established. A confirmation of a name or event shows the text is rooted in history, and further argument is needed to judge particular accounts.

Give an example where archaeology has challenged a traditional reading.

Excavations at Jericho and Ai have not clearly shown destructions in the period that a literal reading of Joshua suggests, and scholars disagree about the dates and interpretation. Many now question the idea of a rapid conquest. The case is debated, and the evidence is incomplete.

Why is a claim of a spectacular discovery to be treated with care?

Sensational claims are often made before the evidence has been examined by specialists, and many have turned out to be mistaken or have been rejected by the scholarly community. A reliable report is published with the context of the find, the methods used and the arguments for the identification, and has been discussed by other experts.

Think it through

  1. Does archaeological confirmation matter to your faith or to your doubts? Why or why not?
  2. What would you do if a well-established discovery conflicted with something you had been taught?
  3. How might a believer and a skeptic each read the Tel Dan inscription fairly?

Independent assignment

Evaluate a discovery

In your own notebook, choose one find named in this lesson. Write 300 to 400 words stating what was found, how it is dated, what it confirms, what it does not confirm and what scholars still debate. If you consult sources beyond this lesson, say which. Do not send this to anyone or post it anywhere.

Further study