Program / Course 9: Christology and Pneumatology / Lesson 5.2
What you will learn
- State the ransom-to-the-devil idea in the form held by early writers such as Origen and Gregory of Nyssa.
- Explain the victory model as Gustaf Aulén presented it and the main criticisms of his history.
- Identify the biblical texts that support the victory model.
- Explain the main objections to the model and the replies.
The big idea
In the earliest centuries many Christians described the cross as a victory over the powers that hold humanity captive: sin, death and the devil. Some writers pictured it as a ransom paid to the devil, with God outwitting him. Others, especially in the East, pictured the resurrection as the moment of triumph over death itself. In 1931 the Swedish theologian Gustaf Aulén called this the classic idea of the atonement and gave it the name Christus Victor, Christ the victor. The model is strong on rescue from evil and weaker on guilt, and the ransom-to-the-devil form is widely rejected.
Key terms
- Christus Victor
- Latin for Christ the victor. The model of atonement in which Christ defeats the powers of evil, sin and death.
- Ransom theory
- The early idea that Christ’s death was a payment to free humanity from the devil’s hold. Its forms vary widely.
- The powers
- A New Testament phrase (rulers, authorities, powers) for spiritual and sometimes social forces that oppose God’s purpose.
- Harrowing of hell
- The tradition, found in the East and the West, that Christ after his death went to the place of the dead and set captives free. It draws on 1 Peter 3:19 and Ephesians 4:8-9.
- Dualism
- A picture of reality as a struggle between two equal forces. Christians who use the victory model deny dualism, since God is greater than evil.
- Gustaf Aulén
- A Swedish Lutheran theologian and bishop (1879 to 1977) whose book Christus Victor gave the model its modern name.
- Recapitulation
- Irenaeus’s idea that Christ sums up and renews humanity. It is treated in the next lesson and is often linked with the victory model.
Background
Many New Testament texts speak of Christ’s triumph over enemies. Jesus speaks of binding the strong man (Mark 3:27), of casting out the ruler of this world (John 12:31), and of the cross as the hour of glory. The writers of the early church frequently took up this language, and the first thousand years of Christian preaching and hymns speak constantly of victory over death.
The model has also been criticized, especially in its forms that seemed to say God tricked or paid the devil. The lesson separates the biblical theme of victory from the more dubious pictures that sometimes accompanied it.
Step-by-step explanation
Step 1: The biblical basis
Colossians 2:15 says that Christ, having disarmed the principalities and powers, “made a shew of them openly, triumphing over them in it.” Hebrews 2:14-15 says that through death he destroyed the one who has the power of death, the devil, and freed those held in bondage by fear of death. First John 3:8 says the Son of God appeared to destroy the works of the devil.
First Corinthians 15:26 calls death the last enemy to be destroyed, and Revelation shows the Lamb conquering. The theme is that Christ rescues humanity from forces too strong for it. This is not primarily a theme of guilt and forgiveness, though the texts do not exclude them.
Step 2: Ransom and bait in the early church
Origen suggested that the ransom of Mark 10:45 was paid to the devil, who held humanity captive. Gregory of Nyssa, in the fourth century, gave the image of a fish hook: the devil saw only the human flesh of Christ and, like a fish seizing bait, was caught by the divinity hidden within. Augustine used the picture of a mousetrap, with the cross as the trap and Christ’s blood as the bait.
These images were vivid sermon illustrations. They were never defined by any council. Gregory of Nazianzus openly rejected the idea that a ransom was owed to the devil. Later theologians, such as Anselm, argued against it more fully.
Step 3: Death defeated, the Eastern emphasis
Athanasius and later Eastern writers stressed a related picture: death entered the world through sin, and Christ, being life itself, entered death and destroyed it from within. The Orthodox Easter hymn sings, “Christ is risen from the dead, trampling down death by death.” The cross and resurrection are one victory.
The Orthodox icon of the resurrection shows Christ pulling Adam and Eve from their tombs. This is the harrowing of hell, drawn on 1 Peter 3:19 and developed in later tradition. The image depicts Christ’s victory as an act of rescue.
Step 4: Aulén and the modern revival
In 1931 Gustaf Aulén argued that the victory model was the dominant view of the early church and Luther, that Anselm’s satisfaction theory was a later Latin development, and that the liberal moral influence view was a weaker alternative. His book revived interest in the victory model in Protestant, Catholic and Orthodox circles.
Historians have questioned his history. Early writers used many images, including sacrifice and satisfaction, in addition to victory, and Aulen’s account of Anselm has been called unfair. But his main claim, that the victory theme was central to early preaching, is widely accepted. More recent writers, such as Gregory Boyd and Walter Wink, extend the model to social and spiritual powers.
Step 5: Strengths and objections
The model has strengths. It takes evil seriously as a force, it unites the cross and the resurrection, it speaks to people who feel oppressed or afraid, and it has much biblical support. It is strong in African, Asian and liberation theologies, where the language of powers is natural.
Objections: it may leave guilt and forgiveness unexplained; it may suggest that the devil has rights that God must respect; ransom forms make God a trickster; it can seem to turn the cross into a mere event in a cosmic war without saying why death was required. Defenders reply that the model does not need the ransom form, and that forgiveness is part of the defeat of the power of sin. Many think the victory model is best combined with others.
- Which New Testament texts about victory do you find most persuasive?
- Why did Gregory of Nazianzus reject the idea of a ransom paid to the devil?
- What does the hook and bait picture try to show, and what problem does it create?
- Is the victory model a complete explanation or a part of one?
- Why might this model appeal to people in situations of oppression or fear?
- How would a defender reply to the charge that it ignores guilt?
Examples
The Easter hymn
The Orthodox troparion of Pascha sings that Christ trampled down death by death and gave life to those in the tombs. It is sung many times in the Easter services. The hymn expresses the victory model in a few words.
Luther’s hymn
In A Mighty Fortress Luther writes of the prince of darkness whom a single word can fell. Luther often described the cross as a duel between Christ and sin, death and the devil, a picture Aulén drew on heavily.
A constructed discussion
A group of students is asked whether the model helps a person facing grief. One says that the image of death defeated gives hope. Another says that the image gives no account of guilt. They agree that the model addresses some needs and not others. (A constructed example.)
Different perspectives
Catholic
Catholic teaching includes the victory theme in the liturgy, especially at Easter, and in the Catechism’s statement that Christ conquered death. It does not endorse the ransom to the devil form and uses the victory model together with sacrifice and satisfaction.
Orthodox
The Orthodox Church makes victory over death central to its understanding of Easter and salvation. It combines this with healing and participation in the life of God, and is wary of legal or penal accounts.
Lutheran
Luther’s writings and hymns emphasize the victory over sin, death and the devil. Modern Lutherans, following Aulén, often hold the victory model as fundamental, alongside the doctrine of justification.
Reformed and evangelical
Many accept the victory model as biblical but hold that it rests on the satisfaction of divine justice, so that Christ defeats the powers by dealing with the guilt that gave them a hold. Others see it as one image among several.
Pentecostal and global Christianity
Christians in many parts of Africa, Asia and Latin America, including Pentecostals, often find the victory model natural since it speaks of spiritual forces and deliverance. Critics worry that it can be used in ways that blame individuals or ignore social causes.
Why it matters
The victory model is one of the oldest and widest pictures of the cross. Learning it corrects the notion that Christian thought about atonement began with guilt and law, and it prepares the student for the comparison with satisfaction and penal substitution in the next lesson.
Common misunderstandings
Misunderstanding: The church officially teaches that God paid the devil.
Correction: No council taught this. A few early writers used the image, and others rejected it. It is not part of the faith of any major church today.
Misunderstanding: The victory model is only mythology.
Correction: It uses imagery from ancient thought, as does every model. Its defenders take it to claim that Christ really overcame the real power of sin and death, which Christians experience and speak of in many cultures.
Misunderstanding: Aulén showed that the victory model alone is the Christian view.
Correction: Aulen’s claim that it was the classic view has been criticized as too sweeping. Most scholars say the early church used several models at once.
Knowledge check
What is the victory model of atonement?
It teaches that in his death and resurrection Christ defeated the powers that hold humanity captive: sin, death and the devil. It draws on Colossians 2:15, Hebrews 2:14-15 and 1 John 3:8. Gustaf Aulén named it Christus Victor in 1931. It stresses rescue and the unity of cross and resurrection.
What was the ransom to the devil idea and why was it criticized?
Origen and some later writers said the ransom of Mark 10:45 was paid to the devil, and Gregory of Nyssa and Augustine used images of bait and trap. Gregory of Nazianzus objected that God owes the devil nothing, and others objected that it made God a deceiver. No council defined it.
What are the strengths and weaknesses of the model?
Its strengths include strong biblical support, a serious view of evil, unity of cross and resurrection, and appeal in situations of oppression. Its weaknesses include a thin account of guilt and forgiveness, the risk of suggesting the devil has rights, and uncertainty about why the cross was needed. Many combine it with other models.
How has Aulen’s history been assessed?
Historians accept that the victory theme was prominent in early preaching and Luther. But they note that early writers also used sacrifice and satisfaction, and that Aulen’s reading of Anselm was unfair. The model is widely respected, though his claim that it was the one classic idea is considered too strong.
Think it through
- What powers in the world today might the language of the New Testament describe?
- Does the victory model make evil seem too large or too small?
- How would you explain the model to a child, and what would be lost?
- Why might a model that focuses on rescue be attractive to those who suffer?
Independent assignment
The victory theme in Scripture and worship
In your own notebook, write 500 to 700 words. List six New Testament texts that speak of victory over powers. Then find a hymn or prayer from your own tradition, or one in the library, that expresses the theme. Explain how it uses the model. End with a paragraph on one weakness of the model and how you would address it. Do not send this to anyone.
Further study
- Athanasius of Alexandria, On the Incarnation of the Word Read the sections on the defeat of death.
- Gregory of Nyssa, Dogmatic Treatises, etc. (Nicene and Post-Nicene Fathers, Series 2, vol. 5) Read the passage on the ransom and the hook, in the Great Catechism.
- Martin Luther, The Bondage of the Will Read for Luther’s view of the powers of sin, death and the devil.
- Fleming Rutledge, The Crucifixion: Understanding the Death of Jesus Christ A modern study with a strong treatment of the powers. Read selectively.
- Colossians 2:15 He triumphed over the powers.
- Hebrews 2:14 Through death he destroyed him that had the power of death.
- 1 John 3:8 The Son of God appeared to destroy the works of the devil.
- Mark 3:27 Binding the strong man.