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Course 7 · Lesson 7.5

How Catholic, Orthodox and Protestant churches read the evidence

11 minute read

Lessons in this course

Course 7 outline

Module 1: The World of the New Testament

  1. Second Temple Judaism in the time of Jesus
  2. Pharisees, Sadducees, Essenes and other movements
  3. Rome, the Herods and the province of Judea
  4. Hopes, protest and revolt in Jewish political life

Module 2: Jesus in History

  1. Sources for Jesus: Christian, Jewish and Roman
  2. The quests for the historical Jesus and their methods
  3. Criteria of authenticity and their limits
  4. Historical results and Christian confession

Module 3: The Gospels as Books

  1. The gospels and ancient biography
  2. Traditions of authorship and the arguments about them
  3. The synoptic problem: the evidence of agreement and difference
  4. Solutions: Markan priority, Q, Matthean priority and others
  5. Four portraits of Jesus: the distinct emphasis of each gospel

Module 4: Acts and the Spread of the Church

  1. Pentecost and the Jerusalem church
  2. The mission to the Gentiles and the council at Jerusalem
  3. Paul in Acts and in his own letters
  4. Acts as history and as theology

Module 5: Pauline Theology

  1. Paul and his letters: occasion, authorship and order
  2. Gospel, faith and righteousness in Romans and Galatians
  3. Christ, the Spirit and the body of Christ
  4. Reading Paul: traditional, new perspective and other approaches

Module 6: Johannine Theology

  1. The Gospel, the three letters and Revelation: authorship questions
  2. Word, light, life and love in the Gospel of John
  3. The signs and the I am sayings
  4. The Spirit, the community and the Johannine letters

Module 7: Hope, Authority and Church Order

  1. The kingdom of God and last things in Jesus and the apostles
  2. Ways of reading New Testament eschatology
  3. What an apostle was and how apostolic authority worked
  4. Offices and order in the first churches
  5. How Catholic, Orthodox and Protestant churches read the evidence

Module 8: The Testaments Together

  1. Fulfilment and continuity: how the New Testament uses the Old
  2. Law and covenant across the Testaments
  3. Comparing Paul and John: a method
  4. Shared convictions and meaningful differences

All courses

Program / Course 7: New Testament Theology and History / Lesson 7.5

What you will learn

  • State the Catholic, Orthodox, Anglican, Lutheran, Reformed and free church positions on church order, each in its own terms.
  • Identify the New Testament and early church texts each tradition cites in its support.
  • Explain the main points on which these readings agree and disagree.
  • Practice describing a view you do not hold in a way its members would recognize.

The big idea

The New Testament evidence on church order can be read in more than one way, and the major traditions read it differently. Catholics point to Peter, the apostles and the bishops as successors, with the bishop of Rome as the center of unity. The Orthodox point to the bishop in each local church, united in councils and in the one Eucharist. Protestants vary: some keep bishops, some rely on elders, and some on the congregation, appealing to Scripture as the norm. This lesson sets out each position fairly and does not choose among them.

Key terms

Episcopal
A pattern of church government with bishops (Greek episkopoi) as the chief officers.
Presbyterian
A pattern in which a church is governed by elders (presbyters) in assemblies at local, regional and national levels.
Congregational
A pattern in which each local congregation governs itself, without higher authority over it.
Primacy
A leading position among the bishops. Catholics hold that the bishop of Rome has a primacy of jurisdiction, Orthodox that he has a primacy of honor.
Conciliarity
Church government through councils of bishops. Orthodox churches emphasize it, and Catholics also hold it with the pope’s role.
Priesthood of all believers
The Protestant teaching, drawn from 1 Peter 2:9, that all baptized Christians share in Christ’s priesthood and have access to God.
Ecumenical
From a Greek word for the inhabited world. It refers to efforts to restore unity among the churches.

Background

In the sixteenth century the Reformers appealed to Scripture against what they saw as later accretions in church order. Catholics replied that the apostles and the Fathers had established the bishops and the pope. Orthodox Christians, separated from Rome since 1054, did not share the Reformation debate, but had their own convictions. The present divisions of the churches reflect these histories.

Since the twentieth century, ecumenical dialogue has produced important statements, such as the Faith and Order paper Baptism, Eucharist and Ministry (1982) and the dialogues of Anglicans and Roman Catholics. These have found more agreement on the New Testament evidence than was thought possible, though important differences remain about what the evidence requires of the churches today.

Step-by-step explanation

Step 1: The Catholic reading

The Catholic Church teaches that Christ built his church on Peter (‘Thou art Peter, and upon this rock I will build my church’, Matthew 16:18), gave him the keys, and charged him to feed his sheep (John 21:15 to 17). The apostles appointed successors, and the bishops are those successors, as 1 Clement and Irenaeus attest. The bishop of Rome, as Peter’s successor, has a primacy over the whole church. The First Vatican Council (1870) defined this primacy of jurisdiction and papal infallibility under certain conditions, and the Second Vatican Council (1964) taught that the college of bishops with the pope is the successor of the college of the apostles.

Catholic scholars acknowledge that the New Testament terms for ministry were fluid and that the monepiscopate developed over time. They argue that this was a legitimate development guided by the Spirit and rooted in apostolic practice. They note that Ignatius, Irenaeus and Cyprian give early evidence of the pattern. The strongest Catholic argument is the unbroken witness of the early church to apostolic succession and the Roman church’s special place.

Step 2: The Orthodox reading

The Orthodox Church holds that the church is a eucharistic communion, whose center in each place is the bishop surrounded by presbyters and deacons, as in Ignatius. Every bishop is the successor of all the apostles in his local church, and the bishops are united in councils, as the Seven Ecumenical Councils attest. The bishop of Rome holds a primacy of honor, as first among equals, but not a universal jurisdiction. The Orthodox cite the councils of the first millennium as showing this order, and Acts 15 as the pattern of conciliar decision.

Orthodox Christians accept that the New Testament does not describe a developed structure, and hold that the church’s life under the Spirit gave the order its form. They criticize the Catholic claims of papal infallibility as an innovation, and the Protestant reliance on Scripture alone as detaching it from the church that wrote and recognized it.

Step 3: The Protestant readings

Lutherans hold, in the Augsburg Confession, that the church needs a ministry of word and sacrament, and that bishops are acceptable and useful, but that no specific form of government is required by divine right. Where bishops exist, as in the Church of Sweden, Lutherans honor them. Anglicans keep bishops, priests and deacons, and appeal both to the New Testament and to the Fathers. Many hold apostolic succession as a valuable sign of continuity. Others hold that the church’s essence does not depend on it.

Reformed and Presbyterian churches, following Calvin, hold that the New Testament elder and overseer are one office, that churches are properly governed by elders in assemblies, and that Christ’s four offices of pastor, teacher, elder and deacon are given in Scripture. Congregational, Baptist and many evangelical churches hold that each congregation is under Christ’s direct rule, and that the New Testament shows independent local churches. Quakers and some others reject ordained clergy. All appeal to the priesthood of all believers and to Scripture as the supreme guide.

Step 4: Agreement and disagreement

The traditions agree that Christ founded a church, that the apostles had a unique role, that there are different gifts and ministries, and that the church needs leaders who teach and serve. They agree that the church’s order should serve the gospel and love. The Lima document of 1982 states that the threefold ministry may serve as an expression of the unity of the church.

They disagree on whether a particular form is necessary, on the authority of the pope, on the ordination of women, and on whether churches without bishops in apostolic succession have a fully valid ministry. Each tradition has strong arguments: continuity with the early church, the example of the New Testament, and the freedom of the Spirit. A student does not need to choose among them to describe them with accuracy.

  1. How does each tradition use Matthew 16:18 and John 21 in its argument?
  2. Why do Orthodox Christians emphasize the local bishop and the Eucharist?
  3. What is the strength of the Protestant claim that the New Testament presents elders and overseers as the same office?
  4. Where do Ignatius and the Pastoral letters seem to agree, and where do they seem to differ?
  5. What would it mean for a church to say that its form of government is a matter of freedom?
  6. How might a member of one tradition describe another tradition’s view so that it would recognize itself?

Examples

Rock and keys

Catholics read Matthew 16:18 as Christ giving Peter a unique office. Many Orthodox Christians read the rock as Peter’s confession, which all bishops share. Many Protestants read the rock as Peter’s confession or as Christ himself. The same verse supports three readings.

Lima 1982

The paper Baptism, Eucharist and Ministry was approved by theologians from Catholic, Orthodox and Protestant churches, including Baptists and Pentecostals. It said that the threefold ministry could be recognized by all churches as a sign of apostolic continuity. Churches responded with agreements and reservations.

The Anglican compromise

The Church of England kept bishops at the Reformation while adopting Protestant doctrine. The preface to its Ordinal states that from the apostles’ time there have been these orders. Other Protestants criticized this as retaining unscriptural office, and some Catholics have questioned its validity.

Different perspectives

Catholic view

The Church teaches that the episcopate with the pope at its head is of divine institution, that apostolic succession is necessary for the full reality of the church, and that other Christian communities have elements of truth and sanctification. The Catechism says the one Church of Christ subsists in the Catholic Church.

Orthodox view

The Orthodox Church holds that it has preserved the apostolic faith and order intact, with each local church led by a bishop and all bishops equal, and that unity requires agreement in faith and conciliar practice. It is ready for dialogue with Rome on the nature of primacy as it existed in the first millennium.

Lutheran and Anglican view

Lutherans hold that the Gospel and the sacraments define the church and that church order is a matter of human arrangement, though bishops are valuable. Anglicans hold that bishops in historic succession belong to the fullness of the church, expressed in the Chicago-Lambeth Quadrilateral, while recognizing other churches as true churches.

Reformed and free church view

Reformed churches hold that Christ rules his church by his Word through elders, and that the New Testament gives sufficient guidance. Baptist and free churches hold the independence of the local congregation. They fear that hierarchy can obscure Christ’s headship and the believer’s access to God.

Why it matters

Church order is a lived question: who may preach, baptize, preside at the Lord’s Supper and speak for the church. These traditions shape the lives of millions. Understanding them in their own terms allows a student to talk with people across the churches, to read history clearly, and to understand why unity has been so hard and so desired.

Common misunderstandings

Misunderstanding: Catholics think the pope can say whatever he wishes.

Correction: Catholic teaching limits papal infallibility to solemn definitions on faith and morals, in continuity with Scripture and tradition. Most papal statements are not defined in this way.

Misunderstanding: Orthodox bishops have no head, so the Orthodox churches are disunited.

Correction: Orthodox churches are united by faith, sacraments and councils, with the Ecumenical Patriarch holding a primacy of honor. They face real difficulties in practice, but the structure is intentional.

Misunderstanding: Protestants have no church order.

Correction: Protestant churches have a variety of structured governance, from episcopal to presbyterian to congregational, each with a rationale from Scripture.

Misunderstanding: The New Testament plainly settles the question.

Correction: Serious scholars and churches reading the same texts reach different conclusions. The New Testament evidence is varied, and traditions interpret it in light of their wider convictions.

Knowledge check

How do Catholics understand church order?

Christ founded the church on Peter and the apostles, the bishops are the apostles’ successors, and the bishop of Rome as Peter’s successor has a primacy of jurisdiction. The Second Vatican Council teaches that the college of bishops with the pope succeeds the college of apostles.

How do the Orthodox understand it?

The church is a eucharistic communion centered on the local bishop with presbyters and deacons. All bishops are equal and united in councils, and the bishop of Rome holds a primacy of honor but not universal jurisdiction.

Name three Protestant patterns of church order.

Episcopal, as in Anglican and some Lutheran churches, with bishops; presbyterian, as in Reformed churches, with elders in assemblies; and congregational, as in Baptist and free churches, with each local church self-governing. All appeal to Scripture.

What do the traditions agree on?

That Christ founded the church, that the apostles had a unique role, that the church needs leaders who preach and serve, and that order should serve the gospel. Ecumenical statements such as the Lima document have recorded these agreements.

What is the main reason the traditions differ?

They read the varied New Testament evidence in light of different principles. Catholics and Orthodox give weight to the early church’s practice as the Spirit’s guidance, while many Protestants make Scripture the sole final norm, and they weigh the evidence of Ignatius and the Pastorals differently.

Think it through

  1. How well could you describe the view of church order of a tradition other than your own?
  2. What does your own tradition gain from its form of order, and what does it risk?
  3. Do you think unity requires a single form of order? Why or why not?
  4. What is the place of freedom and of continuity in church order?

Independent assignment

Three fair statements

In your own notebook, write 400 to 550 words. Write a short statement of the Catholic, the Orthodox and one Protestant view of church order, each as a thoughtful member of that tradition would. Cite two texts for each. End with a paragraph on one point where they agree. Do not send this to anyone.

Further study