Program / Course 23: Research Methodology / Lesson 6.2
What you will learn
- Plan a paper with an outline that states the thesis, the steps of the argument and the evidence for each.
- Write an introduction that gives the question, the thesis and a road map.
- Draft the body so that each section does one job and ends by advancing the argument.
- Draft freely first and revise later, without losing track of sources.
The big idea
An outline turns research into an argument. It lists the question, the thesis, the main steps in order, the evidence for each step, and the strongest objection with its reply. A draft then fills out the outline. The first draft does not need to be elegant. Its job is to get the argument and the evidence onto the page, with citations in place, so that revision has something to work on. Many writers find that drafting reveals gaps in the outline, and that is a benefit, not a failure.
Key terms
- Outline
- A plan of a paper listing its parts in order, with the main point and evidence for each.
- Introduction
- The opening section, which states the question, why it matters, the thesis and how the paper will proceed.
- Body
- The central sections of a paper, which present the evidence and develop the argument step by step.
- Conclusion
- The closing section, which restates what has been shown, notes the limits and says what remains open.
- Topic sentence
- The first or key sentence of a paragraph, stating its main point.
- Road map
- A short statement in the introduction of the order in which the paper will take up its points.
- First draft
- The first complete version of a paper, written to get the content down, not to perfect it.
- Reverse outline
- An outline made from a finished draft by listing the point of each paragraph, used to check the structure.
Background
Writers differ in how they plan. Some write detailed outlines before a word of the draft, and some write a rough draft to find out what they think. For a sourced paper with a clear thesis, some planning is almost always needed, because the argument has an order and the evidence has to be placed where it supports a point. An outline is not a straitjacket. It can change as the writing proceeds. But it gives a framework to return to when the draft wanders.
The typical structure of a research paper in the humanities is simple. The introduction sets out the question and the thesis. A section on background or sources may follow, including a brief review of the literature. The body takes up the steps of the argument, each in its own section. A section answers the strongest objection. The conclusion states what has been shown, notes the limits of the research and points to open questions. The shape serves the reader, who can find the question, the argument and the evidence where they expect them.
Drafting is easier when it is separated from revision. Many writers stall because they try to produce polished sentences at once. A better approach is to write steadily, put in placeholders for gaps, insert footnotes as you go, and mark spots to check. The cost of putting citations in the first draft is small, and the cost of adding them later, from memory, is large. Colossians urges working ‘heartily, as to the Lord’ (Colossians 3:23), and steady work, step by step, is how long papers actually get written.
Step-by-step explanation
Step 1: Write a working outline
Begin with the question and the thesis at the top. Under them list the main steps of the argument as short statements, in the order a reader needs them. Under each step list the evidence you will use, with the source labels from your notes, and any objection to deal with.
Use full sentences for the main points, not just topics. ‘Tertullian’s reasons rest on his view of post-baptismal sin’ is a point. ‘Tertullian’s reasons’ is only a heading. A sentence outline shows whether the argument holds together.
Step 2: Test the outline
Read the outline as if it were the paper. Does each step follow from the one before? Is any step missing? Is any evidence listed that does not support its step? Is the strongest objection dealt with? Move or cut parts until the order is persuasive.
Show the outline to a reader if you can. A reader can spot a gap in a plan more easily than in a finished text.
Step 3: Write the introduction, then reconsider it at the end
A good introduction states the topic and the question, says why it matters, gives the thesis, and gives a brief road map. It should not begin with a sweeping statement about humanity through the ages. Begin with the problem.
Write a first version now, to guide the draft, but expect to rewrite it after the body is done. By then you will know what the paper actually argues.
Step 4: Draft the body section by section
Take one section at a time. Open with a sentence stating its point, present the evidence, quote or paraphrase with citations, explain what the evidence shows, and end by tying the section to the thesis. Keep quotations short and always comment on them.
If you reach a gap, write a bracketed note such as [find a source for this] and keep going. Do not stop to polish. Do keep every source labeled.
Step 5: Draft the objection and the conclusion, then rest
Give the strongest objection its own section. State it fairly, then reply. Then write the conclusion: what the paper has shown, the main limits of the evidence or method, and one question that remains open. Do not introduce new evidence in the conclusion.
Set the draft aside for at least a few days. The assignment of this course asks for three. Distance helps you see what is clear and what is not.
- Can I state my thesis in one sentence?
- Does each section advance the argument?
- Is the evidence for each point in the right place?
- Have I given the strongest objection its own treatment?
- Are my citations in the draft, and are the gaps marked?
- Does the conclusion say what has been shown and what has not?
Examples
A sentence outline
Question: How did Tertullian argue about the timing of baptism? Thesis (working): His advice to delay rests on his view of the gravity of post-baptismal sin. I. Tertullian’s text and context (sources: On Baptism; scholarship on its date). II. His reasons for delay (chapter 18; compare with his other works). III. His view of sin after baptism (evidence from his later writings). IV. Objection: the reasons may be pastoral, not theological; reply. V. Conclusion and limits. (A constructed outline to show the form.)
An introduction in outline
Sentence 1: the problem. Sentence 2 to 3: what scholars have said. Sentence 4: the question. Sentence 5: the thesis. Sentence 6: the plan of the paper. A short introduction following this order is clear to a reader and also guides the writer.
A reverse outline
After drafting, a student writes the point of each paragraph in one line. She finds that paragraphs 7 and 8 make the same point and that paragraph 12 has no clear point. She merges the first two and rewrites the third. The reverse outline made the problem visible. (A constructed example.)
Different perspectives
Academic writing guides
Guides to writing in the humanities generally recommend a thesis, a plan and a draft written with citations in place. They advise that the introduction be written or rewritten last, that each paragraph make a single point, and that the conclusion avoid mere repetition.
Scholastic and patristic forms
Older Christian writers used forms that suit particular aims: the homily, the commentary, the dialogue, the treatise and the scholastic question. Modern research writing is different from these, but a writer may learn from them. The scholastic question, for instance, with its objections and replies, models a way to place the strongest objection within the argument.
Protestant, Catholic and Orthodox teaching writers
Seminary and university programs in all three traditions teach the same basic paper form. They may add expectations of their own, such as a statement of the author’s position or reflection on the implications for ministry. A student writing for a particular school should follow its instructions.
Writers’ experience
Experienced writers often report that outlines change as they draft, that they write the introduction last, and that stepping away from a draft improves their revision. Methods vary, and a writer should keep to those that work, provided the paper ends up clear, supported and fair.
Why it matters
A paper without a plan wanders, repeats itself and buries its best points. A paper with a plan can be written in steps that a person with limited time can manage. Drafting with citations also guards against plagiarism and last-minute errors. The habit of planning, drafting and revising applies to every sustained piece of writing, from a letter to a book.
Common misunderstandings
Misunderstanding: I should write the introduction first and perfect it.
Correction: Write a working introduction to guide you, but revise it when the body is finished. You cannot introduce an argument well until you know what it is.
Misunderstanding: The first draft should be polished.
Correction: The first draft should be complete. Polishing before the argument is settled wastes effort on sentences that may be cut.
Misunderstanding: I can add the footnotes at the end.
Correction: Adding them later from memory leads to errors and lost sources. Put them in as you write.
Misunderstanding: An outline locks me into my first plan.
Correction: An outline is a working plan that can change. Revise it when the evidence or the draft requires, and note why.
Knowledge check
What belongs in the introduction of a research paper?
The topic and the question, a brief statement of why it matters, the thesis, and a short road map of how the paper will proceed. It may include a short review of earlier scholarship. It should begin with the problem, not with a broad claim, and is best rewritten after the body is complete.
Why use full sentences in an outline?
Full sentences state the point of each step, so the outline shows whether the argument holds together. A list of topics only names subjects and may hide gaps in reasoning. A sentence outline is also easier to turn into paragraphs.
What is a reverse outline and when is it useful?
A reverse outline is made after drafting by writing the main point of each paragraph in one line. It shows the actual structure of the draft, revealing repetition, gaps and paragraphs without a clear point. It is useful during revision to reorganize the paper.
Why include citations in the first draft?
The sources are fresh in mind and notes are at hand, so citations are accurate and quick to write. Adding them later from memory risks wrong pages, lost sources and accidental plagiarism. Placeholders mark places where evidence is still needed.
Think it through
- Do you tend to plan too little or too much? How does it affect your writing?
- What would you cut from a paper if you only had half the space?
- How does placing the strongest objection in the paper change the way you argue?
- What would help you keep drafting when you feel stuck?
Independent assignment
An outline and an introduction
In your own notebook, write a sentence outline for your research paper with the question, thesis, five or six main steps, the evidence for each step with source labels, and the strongest objection with a reply. Then write a draft introduction of 150 to 250 words, with a footnote placeholder for each source named. Finally write 100 words on what you would change if the evidence did not support your second step. Do not send this to anyone.
Further study
- J. N. D. Kelly, Early Christian Doctrines Study how each chapter opens, develops its points in order and cites its evidence.
- Jaroslav Pelikan, The Christian Tradition: A History of the Development of Doctrine (5 volumes) Read an introduction to see how a historian states the question and the plan.
- Bruce M. Metzger, The Canon of the New Testament Observe the structure of a scholarly argument from evidence to conclusion.
- Colossians 3:23 Work heartily, a text for steady, careful work.
- Luke 1:3 Luke writes an orderly account.
- Proverbs 14:15 The prudent consider their steps.