Course 16 · Apologetics
Historical Defense
Learn how historians reason about the past, then apply that method to Jesus, the Gospels and the resurrection claim, weighing the evidence and its limits honestly.
Overview
This course asks what historical reasoning can and cannot show about the origins of Christianity. It begins with method: what counts as a source, how historians weigh evidence, what probability means in history, and where a historical conclusion ends and a theological one begins.
The course then examines the evidence in order. It covers Roman and Jewish references to Jesus and the early Christians, the dating and authorship of the Gospels, the debate over their reliability, the practice of crucifixion, the letters of Paul, and the earliest Christian testimony to the resurrection. Each topic is taught with the main scholarly positions side by side, including skeptical ones, and with a clear marking of what is broad consensus, what is actively debated and what is personal interpretation.
The course treats alternative explanations of the resurrection claim seriously, including hallucination, legend, conspiracy and mistaken identity. It also asks what the evidence about martyrdom can and cannot prove. No conclusion is handed to you in advance.
By the end you will be able to build a careful historical case for the resurrection, state the strongest objections to it, and say plainly which parts of the question history can address and which parts it cannot.
Objectives
- Explain the basic principles of historical method, including the evaluation of sources, criteria of authenticity and the meaning of historical probability.
- Distinguish a historical conclusion from a theological conclusion and state why the difference matters.
- Summarize the Roman and Jewish references to Jesus and early Christianity and assess what each can establish.
- Describe the main arguments for the dating and authorship of the four Gospels and state where scholars agree and disagree.
- Evaluate arguments for and against the reliability of the Gospels using consistent standards.
- Describe Roman crucifixion and explain why the death of Jesus by crucifixion is widely accepted by historians.
- Analyze Paul’s letters and the early creedal material as testimony to the resurrection claim.
- Assess the main alternative explanations for the origin of the resurrection belief and the evidentiary limits of martyrdom traditions.
- Construct a written historical case for the resurrection of Jesus that addresses objections and states its limits.
Course outline
Module 1 How Historians Reason
Learn the tools and limits of historical method, and see why history deals in probability and why a historical result is not the same as a theological one.
Topics
- Historical methodology
- Historical probability
- Historical versus theological conclusions
Lessons
Module 2 Jesus in the Ancient World
Survey the scholarly study of Jesus and the references to him and to early Christians outside Christian writings.
Topics
- Historical Jesus scholarship
- Non-Christian historical sources
- Roman and Jewish references to early Christianity
Lessons
Module 3 The Gospels as Historical Sources
Examine when and by whom the Gospels were written, how they relate to each other, and how reliable they are as evidence.
Topics
- Dating and authorship of the Gospels
- Gospel reliability
Lessons
Module 4 The Death of Jesus
Study Roman crucifixion and the evidence that Jesus was executed, as the starting point of the resurrection question.
Topics
- Crucifixion
Lessons
Module 5 The Earliest Testimony
Read Paul and the earliest creedal traditions as testimony, and ask what the first Christians claimed and when they claimed it.
Topics
- Resurrection claims
- Early Christian testimony
- Pauline testimony
Lessons
Module 6 Martyrdom and Its Limits
Ask what the deaths of early Christians can show, and what they cannot.
Topics
- Martyrdom traditions and their evidential limitations
Lessons
Module 7 Alternative Explanations
Evaluate the main naturalistic and other explanations for the rise of the resurrection belief by the same standards used for the claim itself.
Topics
- Alternative explanations for the resurrection
Lessons
Module 8 Building and Testing a Case
Assemble the evidence into an argument, weigh the probabilities, and state what the case does and does not establish.
Topics
- Historical probability
- Historical versus theological conclusions
- Resurrection claims
Lessons
Suggested schedule
| When | Work |
|---|---|
| Week 1 | Module 1: How Historians Reason |
| Week 2 | Module 2: Jesus in the Ancient World |
| Week 3 | Module 3: The Gospels as Historical Sources |
| Week 4 | Module 4: The Death of Jesus |
| Week 5 | Module 5: The Earliest Testimony |
| Week 6 | Module 6: Martyrdom and Its Limits |
| Week 7 | Module 7: Alternative Explanations |
| Week 8 | Module 8: Building and Testing a Case |
| Week 9 | Independent assignment and self-assessment |
Readings
Required
- Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy, Philosophy of History
Raises the questions of how historians know the past, which matter for historical apologetics.
How to use it: Read for the basic questions about historical knowledge and explanation. Use it for the first module on method.
Read online (Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy) In the library - N. T. Wright, The Resurrection of the Son of God
A major scholarly argument about what the first Christians meant by resurrection and why they believed it happened. Long and demanding.
How to use it: A very long scholarly study of resurrection belief in the ancient world and in early Christianity. Read selectively, focusing on the parts about Jewish and Greco-Roman expectations and the earliest Christian claims. Note that the author is a Christian scholar.
Find in a library or bookstore catalog (Open Library) In the library - Richard Bauckham, Jesus and the Eyewitnesses
Argues that the Gospels rest on eyewitness testimony. Important and debated.
How to use it: Read for the argument that the Gospels rest on eyewitness testimony. Write down the argument in your own words and note the criticisms scholars raise against it.
Find in a library or bookstore catalog (Open Library) In the library - F. F. Bruce, The New Testament Documents: Are They Reliable?
A short classic defense of the historical reliability of the New Testament. Read it with a critical eye and compare it with newer work.
How to use it: A short older defense of the reliability of the New Testament. Read it as one position, then compare it with the more cautious views in the other readings.
Find in a library or bookstore catalog (Open Library) In the library - Bruce M. Metzger and Bart D. Ehrman, The Text of the New Testament: Its Transmission, Corruption, and Restoration
The standard introduction to New Testament textual criticism, written by one believer and one skeptic.
How to use it: Read selectively on how the New Testament text was copied and what the manuscript evidence shows. This protects your case from claims about the text that are exaggerated.
Find in a library or bookstore catalog (Open Library) In the library - Justin Martyr, The First Apology
A second-century defense of Christianity addressed to the Roman emperor. The model of early Christian reasoning with outsiders.
How to use it: Read for how an early Christian writer described Christian belief and practice to a Roman audience.
Read online (New Advent (Church Fathers)) In the library
Recommended
- William Lane Craig, Reasonable Faith: Christian Truth and Apologetics
A widely read textbook of classical and evidential apologetics.
How to use it: Read selectively for one prominent Christian argument for the resurrection. Compare its method with that of Wright.
Find in a library or bookstore catalog (Open Library) In the library - Justo L. Gonzalez, The Story of Christianity
A standard one-volume or two-volume survey of church history from the apostles to the present.
How to use it: Use for the broader setting of the early church and its relation to the Roman world.
Find in a library or bookstore catalog (Open Library) In the library - Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy, Hume on Religion
Introduces Hume’s critique of natural theology and miracles.
How to use it: Read for Hume’s argument about miracles and the responses to it, since a historical case for the resurrection must face it.
Read online (Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy) In the library - Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy, Fallacies
A scholarly guide to logical fallacies. Use it to sharpen argument checking.
How to use it: Use as a checklist when you review your own argument and the arguments of others.
Read online (Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy) In the library - Irenaeus of Lyon, Against Heresies
The first great defense of apostolic teaching against Gnostic rivals. Essential for the question of how Scripture and tradition relate.
How to use it: Read selectively for how a second century bishop appealed to apostolic testimony.
Read online (New Advent (Church Fathers)) In the library - Bruce M. Metzger, The Canon of the New Testament
A standard history of how the New Testament canon was formed.
How to use it: Read selectively on how the four Gospels came to be recognized as authoritative.
Find in a library or bookstore catalog (Open Library) In the library - Athanasius of Alexandria, On the Incarnation of the Word
A short and clear account of why God became man. It is the best first patristic text for a beginner.
How to use it: A later theological reading of the death and resurrection of Christ. Use it to see the difference between a historical and a theological conclusion.
Read online (New Advent (Church Fathers)) In the library
Passages in the Scripture Study
- 1 Corinthians 15:3 Paul passes on what he himself received: Christ died for our sins and was buried and raised. Most scholars regard this as very early tradition.
- 1 Corinthians 15:5 The list of appearances begins with Cephas (Peter) and the Twelve.
- 1 Corinthians 15:14 Paul says that if Christ has not been raised, the preaching and the faith are empty.
- Galatians 1:18 Paul’s visit to Jerusalem to meet Cephas, a point of contact with the earliest community.
- Luke 1:1 The preface of Luke describes the use of eyewitnesses and earlier accounts, and is important for the study of Gospel sources.
- John 19:34 The soldier pierces the side of Jesus, a detail in the account of the crucifixion.
- Mark 15:39 The centurion at the cross, in the earliest of the four Gospels by most scholarly dating.
- Mark 16:6 The announcement at the empty tomb. The ending of Mark is a well known textual question, so note which verses are in the oldest manuscripts.
- Matthew 28:13 The story that the disciples stole the body, which Matthew says was circulating. It shows an early dispute about the empty tomb.
- Luke 24:39 The risen Jesus invites touch, an emphasis on bodily reality.
- Acts 2:32 Peter’s early proclamation that God raised Jesus and that the apostles are witnesses.
- Acts 26:25 Paul tells Festus that he speaks words of truth and sober reason.
- 1 Corinthians 9:1 Paul claims to have seen Jesus the Lord.
- Galatians 1:16 Paul speaks of God revealing his Son to him, the basis of his claim to apostleship.
Independent assignment
A Historical Case for the Resurrection of Jesus
- Purpose
- To construct a careful historical argument for the resurrection of Jesus, test it against the strongest alternative explanations, and state honestly what the evidence can and cannot establish.
- Instructions
- State the question you are answering in one sentence, and define what you mean by resurrection, so that your claim is clear before you argue it.
- Describe your method: which kinds of sources you will use, how you will judge their reliability, and what you mean by historical probability.
- List the facts you will treat as your evidence, such as the death of Jesus by crucifixion, the early claim of appearances, and the conversion of Paul. For each fact, say how widely scholars accept it and cite the source or text that supports it.
- Write the positive argument: explain step by step how the resurrection claim accounts for the evidence you listed.
- Present at least three alternative explanations (for example hallucination, legend, conspiracy, or another you choose) in their strongest form, and evaluate each against the same evidence.
- Address the objection from background belief: explain how you handle the question of whether a miracle can be affirmed by historical methods at all.
- Assess the evidence about martyrdom and the evidence from non Christian sources honestly, including what each cannot prove.
- State the limits of your case. Say which parts are historical, which parts depend on your wider beliefs, and what a theological conclusion would add that history cannot supply.
- Write a conclusion that gives your assessment of the probability and says what new evidence or argument would change your mind.
- Required sources
- At least four of the required readings.
- At least five of the Scripture passages listed for this course, treated as historical sources.
- At least one scholar who accepts the resurrection and at least one who rejects it, each cited from their own work or from a fair summary.
- Length and scope
- About 3,000 to 4,500 words, or ten to fourteen pages. Keep it in your own notebook or document. Do not send it anywhere.
- Questions to address
- What exactly am I claiming, and what kind of claim is it?
- Which facts are accepted by most scholars, and which are disputed?
- Which alternative explanation is the strongest, and why?
- How does my view of miracles affect the way I weigh the evidence?
- What would count as evidence against my conclusion?
- Where does my argument move from history into theology?
- Expected output
- A structured written case with a statement of method, a list of evidence, a positive argument, an evaluation of at least three alternative explanations, a statement of limits and a conclusion.
- How it will be evaluated
- It defines the claim and the method before arguing.
- It separates well attested facts from disputed ones and cites support for each.
- It presents alternative explanations fairly, in their strongest form.
- It reasons about probability instead of asserting certainty.
- It states the limits of the case and the difference between a historical and a theological conclusion.
- It cites sources accurately and does not use late legends as early evidence.
- Common mistakes to avoid
- Assuming the Gospels are inerrant in order to prove that they are reliable, which is circular.
- Treating late traditions about the deaths of the apostles as firm historical evidence.
- Describing skeptical arguments from weak examples instead of the best ones.
- Claiming that history can prove a theological doctrine on its own.
- Quoting scholars from memory instead of checking what they actually argued.
Knowledge check and self-assessment
What does it mean to say that history deals in probability?
Historians cannot repeat past events or test them in a laboratory. They weigh the available sources and ask which explanation best accounts for the evidence. The result is a judgment of more or less likely, not a demonstration. This applies to every ancient event, so the claim that something is only probable does not by itself count against a conclusion. What matters is how strong the evidence is and how well competing explanations account for it.
Name two non Christian writers who mention Jesus or the early Christians and say what each can establish.
Tacitus, a Roman historian writing in the early second century, says that Christ was executed under Pontius Pilate during the reign of Tiberius and that the movement spread to Rome. Josephus, a Jewish historian of the first century, mentions Jesus and James, though one passage about Jesus was probably altered by later Christians. These sources show that Jesus was a real person who was executed and that a movement formed. They do not address the resurrection claim.
Why is the dating of the Gospels important, and what is the usual scholarly range?
The closer a source is to the events, the less time stories had to change and the more likely that eyewitnesses were still alive. Most scholars date Mark to about 65 to 75 AD, Matthew and Luke to about 70 to 90 AD, and John to about 90 to 100 AD. Some conservative scholars date them earlier, and some critical scholars date them later. Even on the usual dates, the Gospels are within about two generations of Jesus.
Why do most historians, including many skeptics, accept that Jesus was crucified?
Several independent lines of evidence point to it: Christian sources from the earliest period, the account in Tacitus, and the mention in Josephus. Crucifixion was a shameful death, so a movement inventing a founder would be unlikely to create it. This is often called the criterion of embarrassment. The execution of Jesus under Pontius Pilate is among the most widely accepted facts about him.
What is the importance of 1 Corinthians 15:3-8 in this debate?
Paul says he is passing on what he received, which includes the death, burial, resurrection and appearances of Jesus. Most scholars date the letter to the early 50s AD and think the tradition he passes on goes back to within a few years of the crucifixion. So the claim that Jesus was raised and appeared is very early. This does not prove it is true. It shows that the claim did not arise as a late legend.
What are two weaknesses in using martyrdom as evidence for the resurrection?
First, many of the traditions about the deaths of the apostles come from late sources and are legendary, so only a few deaths are well attested early. Second, willingness to die shows that people sincerely believed what they claimed, but sincere people can be wrong, and followers of other movements have also died for their beliefs. Martyrdom is evidence of sincerity, not by itself evidence of truth.
Describe two alternative explanations for the resurrection belief and one standard objection to each.
One explanation is that the disciples experienced hallucinations or visions. An objection is that this seems poorly suited to explain group experiences and the empty tomb tradition, and it does not easily account for the conversion of skeptics like Paul, although defenders of the theory dispute this. Another is that the story developed as legend over time. An objection is that the earliest testimony in Paul is too early for much legendary growth. Each explanation has defenders and should be stated in its strongest form.
What is the difference between a historical and a theological conclusion about the resurrection?
A historical conclusion concerns what probably happened, based on sources and reasoning that any inquirer can examine. A theological conclusion concerns the meaning of the event, such as that Jesus is the Son of God and that his death and rising bring salvation. History may support the first and can inform the second, but the second also depends on faith commitments and wider beliefs about God. Keeping the two apart makes an argument more honest.
Judge your own progress
- When you finish the modules, answer the knowledge questions from memory, without notes. Aim for 70 percent or better; if you score lower, reread the relevant module and try again.
- Write your historical case (the independent assignment). Wait three days, reread it, and mark every claim that you have not supported with a source.
- Check your work against the evaluation criteria in the assignment. Rate each criterion as strong, adequate or weak and write one sentence on how you would improve each weak one.
- Return to the key ideas of the course after 1 day, 7 days, 30 days and 90 days. At each point, restate the main alternative explanations and the strongest objection to each, and explain the difference between a historical and a theological conclusion.
- You can state the main sources and what each can and cannot establish.
- You can present the best case for and against the resurrection so that a believer and a skeptic would each recognize their position.
- Your written case separates evidence, inference and faith commitment, and admits its limits.