Course 9 · Theology and Tradition
Christology and Pneumatology
Study the church’s teaching on the person and work of Christ and the person and work of the Holy Spirit, with close attention to the councils of Ephesus and Chalcedon and to the major theories of atonement.
Overview
This course is the second of three on systematic theology. Its first part is Christology, the study of who Jesus Christ is. It follows the biblical witness to Jesus as truly human and truly divine, then the long series of disputes in the fourth and fifth centuries over how the divine and the human are united in one person. These disputes led to the Councils of Ephesus in 431 and Chalcedon in 451 and to the language that most Christians still use to confess Christ.
The second part is soteriology as it concerns the work of Christ: why he died, what the resurrection means, and what the ascension adds. The church never adopted one official theory of atonement, so the course lays out the major models side by side, including the ransom or victory model, satisfaction, penal substitution, moral influence and the Eastern emphasis on healing and participation. You will see how each reads Scripture and how each is criticized.
The third part is pneumatology, the study of the Holy Spirit. It covers the Spirit in Scripture, in the early church and in the Nicene settlement, then turns to the gifts of the Spirit and sanctification. Where Catholic, Orthodox and Protestant Christians differ, and where Pentecostal and charismatic traditions give different weight to the gifts, the positions are stated as their own members would state them.
Technical terms such as hypostatic union, communication of properties, kenosis, atonement and procession are defined when they first appear. By the end you will be able to explain the historical development of orthodox Christology and write a reasoned defense of the Chalcedonian understanding of Christ, and you will be able to state the main views on the cross and the Spirit fairly.
Objectives
- Explain what the New Testament affirms about the humanity and divinity of Jesus.
- Describe the major Christological positions of the fourth and fifth centuries, including Arianism, Apollinarianism, Nestorianism and Eutychianism.
- Explain the incarnation and the hypostatic union in plain language.
- Summarize the work of the Councils of Ephesus and Chalcedon and state the Chalcedonian Definition accurately.
- Describe the churches that did not accept Chalcedon and the current state of discussion about whether the dispute was about words.
- Compare the main atonement theories, stating each in its own terms and identifying its biblical basis and main objection.
- Explain what the church affirms about the resurrection and ascension of Christ and what is debated.
- Describe the person and work of the Holy Spirit and trace early Christian pneumatology to the Nicene settlement.
- State fairly how Catholic, Orthodox, Protestant and Pentecostal Christians understand spiritual gifts and sanctification.
- Write a reasoned defense of the Chalcedonian understanding of Christ that includes the historical development.
Course outline
Module 1 The Person of Christ in Scripture
Start with what the New Testament says about Jesus and the questions it leaves for later theology.
Topics
- Person and nature of Christ
- Incarnation
Lessons
Module 2 The Christological Controversies
Follow the debates from the second to the fifth century and see how each wrong answer taught the church what it needed to say.
Topics
- Christological controversies
- Two-natures doctrine
Lessons
Module 3 Ephesus and Chalcedon
Read the two councils in their own words, with the Chalcedonian Definition at the center.
Topics
- Council of Ephesus
- Council of Chalcedon
- Hypostatic union
Lessons
Module 4 Christology After Chalcedon
See how the settlement was refined and how Catholic, Orthodox and Protestant theologians have understood its implications.
Topics
- Two-natures doctrine
- Person and nature of Christ
Lessons
Module 5 The Work of Christ: Atonement, Resurrection, Ascension
Study the major models of atonement and what the church confesses about the resurrection and ascension.
Topics
- Atonement theories
- Resurrection
- Ascension
Lessons
Module 6 The Holy Spirit in Scripture and the Early Church
Learn how the church came to confess the Spirit as God and what the Spirit does.
Topics
- Person and work of the Holy Spirit
- Pneumatology in early Christianity
Lessons
Module 7 Gifts of the Spirit and Sanctification
Examine what the traditions teach about spiritual gifts and the Spirit’s work of making believers holy.
Topics
- Spiritual gifts
- Sanctification
Lessons
Suggested schedule
| When | Work |
|---|---|
| Week 1 | Module 1: The Person of Christ in Scripture |
| Week 2 | Module 2: The Christological Controversies |
| Week 3 | Module 3: Ephesus and Chalcedon |
| Week 4 | Module 4: Christology After Chalcedon |
| Week 5 | Module 5: The Work of Christ: Atonement, Resurrection, Ascension |
| Week 6 | Module 6: The Holy Spirit in Scripture and the Early Church |
| Week 7 | Module 7: Gifts of the Spirit and Sanctification |
| Week 8 | Independent assignment and self-assessment |
Readings
Required
- Council of Nicaea (325) and Council of Constantinople (381), The Nicene-Constantinopolitan Creed
The statement of faith confessed by Catholic, Orthodox and most Protestant churches. Learn it line by line before reading anything else on the Trinity.
How to use it: Read the second article on Christ and the third on the Spirit. Mark the phrases added in response to specific errors.
Read the creed (Christian Classics Ethereal Library) In the library - Philip Schaff and Henry Wace, eds., The Seven Ecumenical Councils (Nicene and Post-Nicene Fathers, Series 2, vol. 14)
The decrees and canons of Nicaea, Constantinople, Ephesus and Chalcedon with the surrounding history. The primary text for Courses 5, 6 and 9.
How to use it: Read the documents of Ephesus and Chalcedon, including the Chalcedonian Definition and, where included, the letters of Cyril and the Tome of Leo. Read the accompanying notes selectively.
Read online (Christian Classics Ethereal Library) In the library - Athanasius of Alexandria, On the Incarnation of the Word
A short and clear account of why God became man. It is the best first patristic text for a beginner.
How to use it: Read the whole short work. It is the classic statement of why the Word became human.
Read online (New Advent (Church Fathers)) In the library - Basil of Caesarea, On the Holy Spirit (De Spiritu Sancto)
Basil’s defense of the full divinity of the Holy Spirit and a key text on unwritten tradition.
How to use it: Read selectively for the argument for the Spirit’s deity and the use of worship as evidence.
Read online (New Advent (Church Fathers)) In the library - John of Damascus, An Exposition of the Orthodox Faith
The eighth-century summary of Eastern doctrine. A standard way into how Orthodox theology organizes the faith.
How to use it: Read the sections on Christ for a summary of Chalcedonian Christology as the Eastern tradition received it.
Read online (New Advent (Church Fathers)) In the library - J. N. D. Kelly, Early Christian Doctrines
A standard account of how Christian doctrine took shape in the first centuries.
How to use it: Read selectively on the Christological controversies and the doctrine of the Spirit.
Find in a library or bookstore catalog (Open Library) In the library
Recommended
- Irenaeus of Lyon, Against Heresies
The first great defense of apostolic teaching against Gnostic rivals. Essential for the question of how Scripture and tradition relate.
How to use it: Read selectively on recapitulation, the idea that Christ sums up and heals humanity.
Read online (New Advent (Church Fathers)) In the library - Fleming Rutledge, The Crucifixion: Understanding the Death of Jesus Christ
A rich modern study of the cross in Scripture and theology.
How to use it: A modern study of the cross and of how the church has understood it. Read selectively.
Find in a library or bookstore catalog (Open Library) In the library - N. T. Wright, The Resurrection of the Son of God
A major scholarly argument about what the first Christians meant by resurrection and why they believed it happened. Long and demanding.
How to use it: A long scholarly treatment of the resurrection. Read the introduction and conclusion first.
Find in a library or bookstore catalog (Open Library) In the library - Vladimir Lossky, The Mystical Theology of the Eastern Church
A classic exposition of Eastern theology as lived and prayed. Advanced.
How to use it: For the Orthodox understanding of the Spirit, deification and Christ.
Find in a library or bookstore catalog (Open Library) In the library - Justo L. Gonzalez, The Story of Christianity
A standard one-volume or two-volume survey of church history from the apostles to the present.
How to use it: Use it for the historical background of the councils.
Find in a library or bookstore catalog (Open Library) In the library - Catholic Church, Catechism of the Catholic Church
The authoritative modern summary of Catholic teaching. Read it to understand what Catholics actually claim, in their own words.
How to use it: Read the sections on Jesus Christ and on the Holy Spirit to learn the Catholic position in its own words.
Read online (Vatican) In the library - John Calvin, Institutes of the Christian Religion
The most influential Reformed theology. Book IV is the best statement of the Reformed view of church and sacraments.
How to use it: Read the sections on the person of the Mediator and on the work of Christ for the Reformed account.
Read online (Christian Classics Ethereal Library) In the library - Charles Hodge, Systematic Theology
A nineteenth-century Reformed systematic theology in three volumes, freely available.
How to use it: A Protestant systematic treatment of Christology and the work of the Spirit. Read selectively.
Volume 1 (Christian Classics Ethereal Library) In the library - Anselm of Canterbury, Cur Deus Homo (Why God Became Man)
Anselm’s classic argument that the incarnation and death of Christ were needed to restore what sin had broken. The source of the ‘satisfaction’ view of the atonement.
How to use it: The classic source of the satisfaction view of the atonement. Read selectively.
Read online in Anselm’s Basic Works (Christian Classics Ethereal Library) In the library - Leo I (Pope Leo the Great), Letter 28, the Tome of Leo
Leo’s letter on the two natures of Christ, read at the Council of Chalcedon. Essential for understanding the Chalcedonian definition.
How to use it: Read the whole letter; it is short and was read at Chalcedon.
Read online (New Advent (Church Fathers)) In the library
Passages in the Scripture Study
- John 1:14 The Word became flesh and dwelt among us. The center of the doctrine of the incarnation.
- Philippians 2:6 The hymn of Christ, who was in the form of God and took the form of a servant; central to kenosis.
- Colossians 2:9 In Christ the whole fullness of deity dwells bodily.
- Hebrews 4:15 Christ was tempted as we are, yet without sin; a text on his full humanity.
- Luke 1:35 The Holy Spirit will come upon Mary; the origin of the human life of Christ.
- Matthew 16:16 Peter confesses Jesus as the Christ, the Son of the living God.
- 1 Timothy 2:5 One mediator between God and humanity, the man Christ Jesus.
- Mark 10:45 The Son of Man gave his life as a ransom for many; often used for ransom and substitution.
- Romans 3:25 God put forward Christ as a propitiation or sacrifice of atonement; the translation and meaning are discussed.
- 1 Corinthians 15:3 Paul passes on that Christ died for our sins and was raised, a very early creedal summary.
- Acts 1:9 The ascension of Christ.
- John 16:7 Jesus says it is to the disciples’ advantage that he go, so that the Spirit may come.
- Acts 2:4 The coming of the Spirit at Pentecost.
- Romans 8:11 The Spirit who raised Jesus dwells in believers and will give life to their bodies.
- 1 Corinthians 12:7 To each is given a manifestation of the Spirit for the common good.
- Galatians 5:22 The fruit of the Spirit: love, joy, peace and the rest.
Independent assignment
The Development and Defense of Chalcedonian Christology
- Purpose
- To explain how orthodox Christology developed in history and to defend the Chalcedonian understanding of Christ, showing that you understand both the positions it rejected and the objections to it.
- Instructions
- State the Chalcedonian Definition in your own words in one paragraph, naming what it affirms about the person and about the two natures.
- Collect the biblical evidence in three groups: texts on Christ’s full divinity, texts on his full humanity, and texts that speak of one person who is both. Cite at least eight passages and explain what each contributes.
- Narrate the historical development in order, from the New Testament and the second-century errors, through Arius and Nicaea, Apollinarius, the schools of Antioch and Alexandria, Nestorius and Cyril, Ephesus in 431, Eutyches and the Tome of Leo, to Chalcedon in 451. Mark uncertain dates with c.
- For each of Arianism, Apollinarianism, Nestorianism and Eutychianism, state the position as its supporters would put it and explain what the church found inadequate about it.
- Explain the key terms: person, nature, hypostatic union, and communication of properties. Define them in plain language.
- Describe the reaction to Chalcedon, including the churches that did not accept it, and summarize in a fair paragraph the modern discussion over whether the dispute was largely about words.
- Give at least two serious objections to Chalcedon (for example that its language is philosophical, or that it cannot be coherent) and the best reply to each. Say honestly where a reply is incomplete.
- Explain why the doctrine matters for salvation and worship, using at least one argument from the writers you have studied.
- Close with a paragraph naming what you are confident of and what remains difficult.
- Required sources
- The Chalcedonian Definition and at least one other required reading.
- At least eight of the Scripture passages for this course, with at least three from outside the list.
- At least one Western source and one Eastern source.
- Length and scope
- About 3,000 to 4,500 words, or ten to fourteen pages. Keep it in your own notebook or document. Do not send it anywhere.
- Questions to address
- What does it mean to say Christ is one person in two natures?
- What would be lost if Christ were not fully human, or not fully divine?
- Why did the church treat Nestorius and Eutyches as opposite mistakes?
- Why did some churches reject Chalcedon, and what do they say today?
- Which objection to Chalcedon do I find the strongest, and what is the best reply?
- Expected output
- A written, referenced account of the development of Christology and a defense of the Chalcedonian understanding of Christ.
- How it will be evaluated
- It states the Chalcedonian Definition and its terms accurately.
- It uses Scripture carefully and cites it correctly.
- It narrates the history in order, with accurate names and dates.
- It presents Nestorian, Eutychian and non-Chalcedonian views fairly.
- It engages real objections and replies without evasion.
- It is written in plain, careful language.
- Common mistakes to avoid
- Treating nature and person as the same thing.
- Describing Nestorius or the non-Chalcedonian churches from their opponents instead of from their own statements.
- Reading the later Chalcedonian terms back into the New Testament as though the authors used them.
- Presenting Christ as divine in appearance only, or as a human who became divine by degrees.
- Skipping the objections and writing only a summary of the history.
Knowledge check and self-assessment
What is the hypostatic union?
The hypostatic union is the teaching that in Jesus Christ two natures, divine and human, are united in one person (hypostasis), the eternal Son. The union is neither a mixture of the natures nor a joining of two persons. The Son did not stop being God when he became human, and he did not become a different kind of being. Chalcedon described the natures as united without confusion, change, division or separation.
What was the dispute between Nestorius and Cyril of Alexandria about?
Nestorius, patriarch of Constantinople, objected to calling Mary Theotokos, bearer of God, preferring Christotokos, bearer of Christ, because he wanted to protect the distinction of the natures. Cyril argued that this risked dividing Christ into two persons and that Mary bore the one Son, who is God. Ephesus in 431 sided with Cyril. Whether Nestorius himself taught two persons is debated by scholars, and the Church of the East has not accepted that charge.
What did the Council of Chalcedon decide?
In 451 Chalcedon confessed that Christ is one person who is truly God and truly man, with a rational soul and body, of one substance with the Father in his divinity and of one substance with us in his humanity. The two natures exist in him without confusion, change, division or separation. The definition drew on the Tome of Leo and earlier statements by Cyril. It was accepted in the Catholic, Eastern Orthodox and Protestant traditions, and was not accepted by the Oriental Orthodox churches.
Why do the Oriental Orthodox churches not accept Chalcedon, and what is the current state of the question?
Following Cyril, they confess one nature of the incarnate Word and feared that Chalcedon’s two natures divided Christ. They reject Eutyches, who denied the human nature of Christ. In the late twentieth century joint theological commissions of the Eastern Orthodox, Oriental Orthodox and Catholic churches concluded that the difference was largely one of terms for what is substantially the same faith, though full communion has not followed in every case. Some scholars hold that real differences remain.
Compare satisfaction and Christus Victor as accounts of the atonement.
Satisfaction, associated with Anselm in the eleventh century, holds that human sin offended God’s honor and that Christ, as God and man, made the satisfaction that humanity owed. Christus Victor, emphasized in many early writers, holds that Christ defeated sin, death and the devil. Each can claim biblical support, and the church has not made either a required doctrine. Many theologians combine them. Critics say satisfaction can make God seem distant or harsh, and that victory language can leave the role of guilt unclear.
What does the church affirm about the resurrection of Jesus, and what is debated?
The church affirms that on the third day God raised Jesus bodily from the dead, so that the tomb was empty and he appeared to the disciples, and that this was the beginning of the new creation. Paul in 1 Corinthians 15 records an early list of witnesses. Debated points include how to understand the nature of the risen body, how the historical evidence should be weighed, and how the resurrection should be interpreted by scholars who do not hold the Christian faith.
How did the church come to confess the Holy Spirit as God?
The New Testament speaks of the Spirit in personal terms, joins the Spirit with the Father and the Son in baptism and blessing, and attributes divine works to the Spirit. In the fourth century Athanasius and Basil argued that the Spirit is worshiped with the Father and the Son and so must be of the same divine nature, and the Council of Constantinople in 381 confessed the Spirit as Lord and giver of life, who with the Father and the Son is worshiped and glorified.
How do cessationists, continuationists and Pentecostals differ on spiritual gifts?
Cessationists hold that gifts such as tongues, prophecy and miraculous healing ceased with the apostolic age. Continuationists hold that all the gifts of 1 Corinthians 12 continue today. Pentecostal and charismatic Christians generally emphasize continuing gifts and a distinct experience of the Spirit. Catholic and Orthodox traditions recognize the working of the Spirit through the sacraments and in the lives of the saints, and in the twentieth century the Catholic charismatic renewal arose. The traditions agree that gifts must be tested by Scripture and serve the common good.
Judge your own progress
- When you finish the modules, answer the knowledge questions from memory, without notes. Aim for 70 percent or better; if you score lower, reread the relevant module and try again.
- Write your defense of Chalcedonian Christology (the independent assignment). Wait three days, reread it, and mark every place where you confused person and nature or relied on a source you did not read.
- Check your work against the evaluation criteria in the assignment. Rate each criterion as strong, adequate or weak and write one sentence on how you would improve each weak one.
- Return to the key ideas of the course after 1 day, 7 days, 30 days and 90 days. At each point, state the Chalcedonian Definition from memory and name the error it rejects on each side.
- You can state the Chalcedonian Definition accurately and explain each of its terms.
- You can narrate the controversies in order and present each position fairly.
- You can compare the main atonement theories and the main views of the Spirit’s gifts without caricature.