Program / Course 22: Christian Ethics / Lesson 7.4
What you will learn
- Explain how the traditions understand conscience and its formation.
- Describe the roles of habit, community, worship and example in moral formation.
- Identify the limits of moral argument and the place of discernment, counsel and prayer.
- Draw together the main themes of the course into a method for moral reflection.
The big idea
Knowing what is right does not make a person good. Christian traditions hold that moral life is formed over time by habits, relationships, worship, example and grace, and that conscience, the inner judgment that applies moral knowledge to a choice, must be educated and can err. Argument is necessary but limited: it clarifies and tests, yet cannot by itself change the heart or supply wisdom. Discernment, which combines reason, counsel, Scripture, prayer and attention to experience, completes the work of ethical study.
Key terms
- Conscience
- The judgment of reason by which a person recognizes the moral quality of a particular act, past or future.
- Formation of conscience
- The lifelong education of conscience through Scripture, teaching, prayer, example and honest self-examination.
- Discernment
- The practice of seeking to know what is good and what God asks in a particular situation, through prayer, counsel and reflection.
- Spiritual father or mother
- An experienced guide, especially in Orthodox and monastic traditions, who counsels a person in the spiritual and moral life.
- Examen
- A brief daily prayer of reviewing the day, associated with Ignatius of Loyola, to notice God’s presence and one’s failings.
- Habitus
- A Latin word for a stable disposition acquired by practice. In the tradition, virtues are habits.
- Erroneous conscience
- A conscience that judges wrongly. Traditions hold that a person must follow conscience, but also must work to form it and may be culpable for neglecting that work.
Background
The Bible speaks of the heart as the seat of moral life: out of it come the issues of life (Proverbs 4:23), and from it come evil thoughts (Matthew 15:19). Paul says the Gentiles show the law written on their hearts, their conscience bearing witness (Romans 2:15), and speaks of a weak conscience, a good conscience and a seared one (1 Corinthians 8:7; 1 Timothy 1:5; 4:2). He urges believers to be transformed by the renewing of their mind (Romans 12:2). Moral life is therefore pictured as change from within, not only obedience to rules.
The previous lessons have studied theories, texts and cases. This final lesson asks how moral knowledge becomes moral life. The older tradition did not treat ethics as a purely intellectual subject. Aristotle said that a person becomes good by practice, and the Fathers placed moral teaching within catechesis, worship and spiritual direction. Modern thinkers such as Alasdair MacIntyre and Stanley Hauerwas have argued that moral reasoning depends on traditions and communities that shape what people see and desire. The lesson draws these threads together.
Step-by-step explanation
Step 1: Conscience and its formation
Catholic teaching holds that conscience is the proximate norm of morality: a person must follow a certain judgment of conscience. It must also be formed by the word of God, the church’s teaching, prayer and examination, because it can err, sometimes through ignorance for which a person is not responsible and sometimes through neglect for which he is. Aquinas held that a person who acts against even an erroneous conscience sins, and that the remedy for error is to correct it, not to act against it. Newman famously described conscience as the aboriginal vicar of Christ, and also insisted it is not mere private preference.
Protestants have emphasized the freedom of conscience bound by the word of God. Luther at the Diet of Worms in 1521 said that his conscience was captive to the word of God and that it is neither safe nor right to go against conscience, a statement that influenced later ideas of religious liberty. Reformed and Puritan writers developed careful guidance for the conscience. Orthodox teaching speaks of conscience as the voice of God in the heart, which can be dulled by sin and sharpened by repentance and the guidance of spiritual elders. The traditions agree that conscience is not infallible, and that neither mere feeling nor mere obedience is enough.
Step 2: Habits, community and worship
Virtue ethics holds that character is formed by repeated practice. The tradition adds that this occurs within a community that tells a story and sets examples. Baptism, the liturgy, the church year, confession, fasting, almsgiving and the lives of the saints shape desire and perception. A person who prays the Lord’s Prayer weekly, confesses sin, shares meals with the poor and sings of mercy is formed in ways that an essay on ethics cannot reproduce. Many traditions teach that morality and worship are inseparable: the prophets denounce worship without justice (Amos 5:21-24), and Paul links the Lord’s Supper to care for the poor (1 Corinthians 11:17-22).
Examples matter. The Fathers taught through the lives of saints, the desert sayings and the stories of martyrs. Protestants have passed on stories of reformers, missionaries and ordinary believers. The advice to imitate those who through faith and patience inherit the promises (Hebrews 6:12) appears throughout the tradition. Families, teachers and mentors are central, and so are friendships. Aristotle’s insight that people become like those they spend time with has its Christian counterpart in Paul’s warning that bad company corrupts good habits (1 Corinthians 15:33).
Step 3: The limits of argument
Argument is valuable. It exposes inconsistencies, tests claims and keeps traditions honest. But it has limits. People often hold convictions for reasons other than arguments, and good reasoning can be bent to self-interest. Psychologists such as Jonathan Haidt have argued that moral judgments often arise from intuition and emotion, with reasoning used afterward to defend them. Some critics think this overstates the matter, while others agree that argument alone seldom changes lives. The tradition knows the point: Paul says that the word of the cross is foolishness to those who perish (1 Corinthians 1:18), and that knowledge puffs up while love builds up (1 Corinthians 8:1).
Argument also cannot supply certain things: courage to act, humility to listen and love for the persons affected. Some hard questions, as in the earlier lessons, remain open after the best arguments. This is not a reason to give up reasoning. It is a reason to combine reasoning with patience, repentance and trust in God, and to recognize that wisdom is a gift as well as an achievement (James 1:5).
Step 4: Discernment and a way of reflection
Discernment draws on several sources. Scripture, read with the church. The teaching of the church or confession. Reason and knowledge of the facts. Counsel from wise persons, since Proverbs says in the multitude of counsellors there is safety (11:14). Prayer and attention to the movements of the heart, as Ignatius taught in his rules for discernment. And the practical test of fruit, whether a course leads to love, joy, peace and the other fruits of the Spirit (Galatians 5:22). Traditions weight these differently: Catholic and Orthodox traditions stress the teaching authority and spiritual guides, Protestants stress Scripture and the Spirit in the believer, with community counsel. All warn against self-deception.
A summary of the course may be put as a series of questions. What is true, as best it can be known, and what is uncertain? What do Scripture and the traditions say, and where do they differ? What do reason and experience add? What do justice, mercy and honesty require? What would a person of good character do, and what does grace make possible? Whom should be consulted? Where one is unsure, act with humility, be ready to repent and to learn, and keep loving the neighbor, including those who disagree.
- How is a person’s conscience formed, and by whom?
- What habits and practices are shaping this person’s desires now?
- Is the problem a lack of knowledge, a lack of will or a lack of courage?
- Whom would a wise person consult before this decision, and why?
- What does the fruit of the course of action show?
- What would humility require here, and what would courage require?
Examples
Luther at Worms
Called before the emperor in 1521 to recant his writings, Luther asked for time, and then declined, saying that unless convinced by Scripture and plain reason he could not recant, since his conscience was captive to the word of God. Admirers see this as a model of conscience under God. Critics note that conscience can also err. The traditions share the sense that conscience matters and also needs formation. (Historical example.)
A desert elder
In the sayings of the desert fathers, a young monk goes to an elder and confesses his thoughts, asking what to do. The elder rarely gives an argument. He gives a short word, an example or a practice, such as to stay in his cell. The tradition prizes this guidance more than debate. (Summarized from the tradition.)
A team makes a decision
A church elders’ board must decide whether to take a controversial public stand. They list the facts, read Scripture and the confession, pray, hear dissent and wait a month. The decision is not unanimous, but they record reasons, allow members to disagree and commit to remain together. This is discernment in practice. (A constructed example.)
Different perspectives
Catholic
The Catechism teaches that conscience is a judgment of reason that must always be obeyed, that it must be formed and that an erroneous conscience may or may not be culpable. Moral formation involves the sacraments, especially confession and the Eucharist, the virtues, spiritual direction and the teaching of the church. Ignatian discernment is widely used.
Orthodox
Orthodox tradition emphasizes the purification of the heart, ascetic practice, liturgical life and obedience to a spiritual father. Discernment, in the Philokalic tradition, is the greatest of the virtues, enabling one to tell the good from the false, and it is learned by experience and guidance. The lives of the saints and the canons serve as guides.
Protestant
Protestants stress that conscience is bound by Scripture and informed by the Spirit, and the believer’s access to God. Practices of sermon, Bible study, small groups, prayer and mutual accountability shape formation. Pietist, Puritan and Wesleyan traditions developed disciplined methods of self-examination and accountability, such as class meetings. Protestants differ on how far church authority may bind conscience.
Secular and scholarly
Psychologists and philosophers study moral development, as in the work of Lawrence Kohlberg and Carol Gilligan, and the role of intuition, emotion and habit in moral judgment, as in Haidt’s work. Educators discuss character formation in schools. These studies offer data that religious traditions can consider, and they also raise questions about how far moral education can be neutral.
Why it matters
The course has surveyed arguments, texts and debates, but its purpose is a wiser and more loving life. A student who sees that formation, community and discernment are part of ethics will use the arguments with more humility and effect. This lesson also offers a way to continue: to keep studying, to seek counsel and to practice what is learned.
Common misunderstandings
Misunderstanding: Following your conscience means doing whatever feels right.
Correction: In the traditions, conscience is a judgment of reason that must be informed by truth and examined. Feeling alone is not conscience, and a person is responsible for forming it.
Misunderstanding: Moral education is just learning rules.
Correction: The traditions teach that rules are part of formation, along with habits, stories, worship, example and grace. Rules without formation produce legalism, and formation without truth produces confusion.
Misunderstanding: If arguments are limited, reasoning is not worth the effort.
Correction: The traditions value reason highly. They hold only that reasoning works together with prayer, counsel and practice, and that it is not sufficient alone.
Misunderstanding: Discernment means waiting for a special sign from God.
Correction: Most traditions describe discernment as ordinary prayer, study, counsel and attention to fruit, though some also acknowledge experiences of strong guidance. They urge testing any claim of guidance against Scripture and wise counsel.
Knowledge check
What is conscience, and why must it be formed?
Conscience is the judgment of reason by which a person recognizes the moral quality of an act. It must be formed because it can err, through ignorance or neglect. Formation comes through Scripture, teaching, prayer, example and honest self-examination, and the person is responsible for doing this work.
How do worship and community form moral character?
They shape habits, desires and perception through repeated practices such as prayer, confession, fasting and almsgiving, and through stories and examples of the saints. The prophets and Paul connect worship with justice and care for the poor. Formation is therefore not only a matter of learning arguments.
What are two limits of moral argument?
Argument cannot by itself supply courage, humility or love, and people often hold moral convictions for reasons other than arguments, using reasoning afterward to defend them. Some questions also remain open after the best arguments. The tradition values reason but combines it with prayer, counsel and practice.
Name three sources used in Christian discernment.
Examples are Scripture read with the church, the teaching of the tradition or confession, reason and knowledge of the facts, the counsel of wise persons, prayer and attention to the heart, and the fruit of the Spirit as a test. Any three are acceptable. The traditions weight them differently and all warn against self-deception.
Think it through
- Who has most shaped your conscience? What did they do that formed you?
- Which practice, such as daily prayer, confession, fasting or service, would most help you grow morally?
- What decision are you facing for which you should seek counsel? From whom?
- After this course, what moral question do you hold more humbly, and which do you hold more firmly?
Independent assignment
A rule of life for moral formation
In your notebook, write 400 to 600 words. Draft a simple rule of life for the next three months that includes three practices to form conscience and character, such as Scripture reading, an evening examination, regular service and a conversation with a trusted counselor. For each, give a reason from the course and a way to tell after three months whether it helped. Write the date on which you will review it. Do not send this to anyone or post it anywhere.
Further study
- Augustine of Hippo, Confessions Read selectively for an honest account of the formation and malformation of the will.
- John Cassian, The Conferences Read the conference on discretion, the virtue of discernment.
- Benedicta Ward, trans., The Sayings of the Desert Fathers: The Alphabetical Collection Read for the way elders guided younger monks by example and short sayings.
- Benedict of Nursia, The Rule of St. Benedict Read the prologue and chapter 4 on the tools of good works.
- Brother Lawrence, The Practice of the Presence of God Read for a simple practice of attention to God in ordinary work.
- John Wesley, Sermons on Several Occasions Read selectively for the Methodist tradition of methodical growth in holiness.
- Romans 12:2 Be ye transformed by the renewing of your mind.
- Hebrews 5:14 Senses exercised to discern both good and evil.
- Philippians 1:9 That your love may abound in knowledge and in all judgment.