Course 22 · Practice and Scholarship
Christian Ethics
Study how Christians have reasoned about right and wrong, from Scripture and philosophy, and apply those methods carefully to contemporary moral questions.
Overview
This course studies Christian ethics: how Christians have understood the good, how they have reasoned about what to do, and what they have taught about particular questions. It begins with the main theories of moral reasoning (natural law, virtue ethics and divine command theory) and with the philosophical question of whether moral claims can be objectively true. It then turns to the moral teaching of Scripture, especially the Ten Commandments and the Sermon on the Mount.
In the second half the course takes up specific areas: human dignity, sexual ethics, marriage and family, war and violence, wealth and poverty, stewardship, bioethics, and technology including artificial intelligence. Each topic is taught by laying out the main positions among Catholic, Orthodox and Protestant Christians, noting where there is wide agreement, where Christians disagree seriously, and what reasons each side gives. The course does not tell the student what to conclude on contested questions. It teaches how to reason about them honestly.
Some of these topics are difficult and personal. The course treats them with seriousness and fairness, and distinguishes between what a tradition teaches, what its best critics say, and what a student may conclude after study. Philosophical terms are explained as they appear.
By the end you will be able to explain the main moral theories, use them to examine a moral question, cite Scripture responsibly in ethical argument, state the views of the major traditions fairly, and write a careful ethical analysis of a contemporary issue.
Objectives
- Explain natural law, virtue ethics and divine command theory and state the main strengths and criticisms of each.
- Explain moral realism and describe how Christian thinkers have defended the objectivity of moral claims.
- Describe the structure and the interpretation of the Ten Commandments and the Sermon on the Mount in the main Christian traditions.
- Explain the Christian doctrine of human dignity and its basis in the image of God.
- State fairly the Catholic, Orthodox and Protestant teaching on sexual ethics, marriage and family, and the main points of disagreement within and between these traditions.
- Explain the just war tradition, Christian pacifism and the reasons given for each.
- Analyze Christian teaching on wealth, poverty and stewardship, including the ethics of creation care.
- Apply Christian moral reasoning to bioethics and to technology, including artificial intelligence.
- Construct a written ethical analysis of a contemporary issue that uses Scripture, historical theology and philosophical argument.
Course outline
Module 1 Foundations: Moral Theories and Moral Reality
Learn the main frameworks for moral reasoning and the question of whether morality is objective.
Topics
- Natural law
- Virtue ethics
- Divine command theory
- Moral realism
Lessons
Module 2 The Moral Teaching of Scripture
Study how Christians have read the moral law of the Old Testament and the teaching of Jesus, with attention to method.
Topics
- Ten Commandments
- Sermon on the Mount
- Natural law
Lessons
Module 3 Human Dignity, Sexuality, Marriage and Family
Examine the doctrine of human dignity and the teaching of the traditions on sexuality, marriage and the family, with the strongest reasons for the main positions.
Topics
- Human dignity
- Sexual ethics
- Marriage and family
Lessons
- The image of God and the basis of human dignity
- Sexual ethics in Scripture and the traditions: Catholic, Orthodox and Protestant positions
- Marriage as covenant and sacrament, and the teaching on divorce and remarriage
- Family, children and obligation
- Serious disagreement among Christians and how to state it fairly
Module 4 War, Violence and Peace
Study the Christian traditions of just war and pacifism and the reasons given for each.
Topics
- War and violence
- Pacifism
- Sermon on the Mount
Lessons
Module 5 Wealth, Poverty and Stewardship
Study what Scripture and the church have taught about money, justice for the poor and care for creation.
Topics
- Wealth and poverty
- Stewardship
- Christian social responsibility
Lessons
Module 6 Bioethics
Apply Christian moral reasoning to questions at the beginning and end of life and to medicine.
Topics
- Bioethics
- Human dignity
- Natural law
Lessons
Module 7 Technology, Artificial Intelligence and Social Responsibility
Ask how Christian ethics can address new technologies and how believers can act responsibly in public life.
Topics
- Technology and artificial intelligence
- Christian social responsibility
- Human dignity
Lessons
Suggested schedule
| When | Work |
|---|---|
| Week 1 | Module 1: Foundations: Moral Theories and Moral Reality |
| Week 2 | Module 2: The Moral Teaching of Scripture |
| Week 3 | Module 3: Human Dignity, Sexuality, Marriage and Family |
| Week 4 | Module 4: War, Violence and Peace |
| Week 5 | Module 5: Wealth, Poverty and Stewardship |
| Week 6 | Module 6: Bioethics |
| Week 7 | Module 7: Technology, Artificial Intelligence and Social Responsibility |
| Week 8 | Independent assignment and self-assessment |
Readings
Required
- Thomas Aquinas, Summa Theologiae
The great medieval summary of Christian theology. It is long; use the questions assigned in each course rather than reading straight through.
How to use it: Read the treatise on law (the First Part of the Second Part, Questions 90 to 97) for the classic account of natural law, and selected questions on the virtues.
Read online (New Advent) In the library - Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy, The Natural Law Tradition in Ethics
A scholarly overview of natural law from Aquinas to the present.
How to use it: Read fully to place Aquinas in the wider debate and to see objections and variations.
Read online (Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy) In the library - Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy, Virtue Ethics
What virtue ethics is, from Aristotle forward, and how it differs from other theories.
How to use it: Read to learn the main versions of virtue ethics and how they compare with other theories.
Read online (Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy) In the library - Catholic Church, Catechism of the Catholic Church
The authoritative modern summary of Catholic teaching. Read it to understand what Catholics actually claim, in their own words.
How to use it: Read the parts on the moral life, the Ten Commandments and Catholic social teaching to learn the Catholic position in its own words.
Read online (Vatican) In the library - Augustine of Hippo, The City of God
A huge answer to the charge that Christianity caused Rome’s fall. It shapes Western thought on history, politics and the church.
How to use it: Read selectively on war, justice and the two cities, especially the passages on just and unjust war in the early books and Book 19.
Read online (New Advent (Church Fathers)) In the library - C. S. Lewis, Mere Christianity
A clear, accessible case for central Christian belief, based on wartime radio talks. A good first book for apologetics.
How to use it: Read Book 1 on the moral law as a short accessible introduction to the argument from morality.
Find in a library or bookstore catalog (Open Library) In the library - Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy, Moral Arguments for the Existence of God
Lays out the main moral arguments and the replies to them.
How to use it: Read to learn the arguments from morality to God, and their objections, which bear on moral realism.
Read online (Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy) In the library
Recommended
- John Calvin, Institutes of the Christian Religion
The most influential Reformed theology. Book IV is the best statement of the Reformed view of church and sacraments.
How to use it: Read the chapters on the moral law and on civil government for the Reformed approach.
Read online (Christian Classics Ethereal Library) In the library - Martin Luther, The Small Catechism
Luther’s short teaching on the Commandments, the Creed, the Lord’s Prayer and the sacraments.
How to use it: Read the explanation of the Ten Commandments for the Lutheran approach.
Read online (Christian Classics Ethereal Library) In the library - Westminster Assembly, The Westminster Confession of Faith
The classic confession of English-speaking Reformed and Presbyterian Protestantism. It is printed in Schaff’s volume of Protestant creeds; use the contents list to find it.
How to use it: Read the chapters on the law of God and on civil government for another Protestant statement.
Creeds of Christendom, vol. 3 (Christian Classics Ethereal Library) In the library - John Chrysostom, On the Priesthood
A fourth-century dialogue on the weight of the priestly office. Useful for the questions of ordination and church authority.
How to use it: Read selectively for the Eastern emphasis on pastoral responsibility and moral formation.
Read online (New Advent (Church Fathers)) In the library - Zacharias Ursinus and Caspar Olevianus, The Heidelberg Catechism
A warm, pastoral Reformation catechism. A good short example of how Protestants teach the faith to beginners.
How to use it: Read the explanation of the commandments for a Reformed catechetical treatment.
Read online (Christian Classics Ethereal Library) In the library - Alvin Plantinga, Warranted Christian Belief
A leading philosopher argues that Christian belief can be rational without being proved by arguments. Advanced.
How to use it: Read selectively for questions about the rationality of Christian belief that bear on moral knowledge.
Find in a library or bookstore catalog (Open Library) In the library - Council of Trent (1545-1563), Canons and Decrees of the Council of Trent
The Catholic response to the Reformation on Scripture, justification and the sacraments. Read it as a Catholic statement of its own position.
How to use it: Read the decrees on justification and on sin and grace for the Catholic background to later moral debate.
Read the canons and decrees (Hanover College) In the library - Timothy (Kallistos) Ware, The Orthodox Church
A widely used introduction to Orthodox history, worship and belief written by an Orthodox bishop.
How to use it: Read selectively for an introduction to Orthodox moral and pastoral teaching.
Find in a library or bookstore catalog (Open Library) In the library
Passages in the Scripture Study
- Exodus 20:2 The introduction to the Ten Commandments, which begins with God’s act of deliverance.
- Deuteronomy 5:6 The second statement of the Ten Commandments.
- Genesis 1:27 Humanity made in the image of God, the basis of human dignity.
- Micah 6:8 What the Lord requires: justice, mercy and humility.
- Matthew 5:3 The Beatitudes, which open the Sermon on the Mount.
- Matthew 5:21 Jesus intensifies the commandment against murder.
- Matthew 5:44 Love of enemies, central to Christian pacifism and to its critics.
- Matthew 22:39 Love your neighbor as yourself.
- Matthew 19:4 Jesus on marriage and creation.
- Romans 2:15 The law written on the heart, a key text for natural law.
- Romans 13:4 The state and the sword, a key text in the just war tradition.
- Luke 10:37 The Good Samaritan and the question of who is a neighbor.
- 1 Timothy 6:10 The love of money, a text on wealth.
- Acts 4:32 Shared goods in the early community.
- Psalm 24:1 The earth is the Lord’s, a basis for stewardship.
- Galatians 5:22 The fruit of the Spirit, often connected to the theology of virtue.
Independent assignment
A Christian Ethical Analysis of a Contemporary Issue
- Purpose
- To construct a careful ethical analysis of one contemporary moral issue, using Scripture, historical theology and philosophical reasoning, and to state the strongest views other than your own.
- Instructions
- Choose one contemporary moral issue that fits the topics of the course (for example artificial intelligence and work, end of life care, just war and a current conflict, wealth and obligation, or environmental stewardship). State the question as a precise question that can be answered, not as a topic.
- Describe the facts of the issue accurately, using at least two reliable sources outside the Christian tradition, and name what is disputed in the facts as well as in the ethics.
- Identify the moral principles at stake. Show how natural law, virtue ethics and divine command theory would approach the question, and say which you find most helpful and why.
- Examine Scripture. Choose passages that actually bear on the question, interpret them in context, and state how Christians have disagreed about their meaning and application.
- Examine historical theology. Find at least two Christian authors or documents from different periods or traditions that address the question or a close relative of it, and describe their reasoning.
- State the main Catholic, Orthodox and Protestant positions on the issue where these exist, in terms their members would accept.
- Present the strongest objections to your own conclusion in their best form, and reply to each honestly. State what would change your mind.
- State your conclusion with the degree of confidence the arguments support, say what it asks of a person in practice and name remaining uncertainties. Add a bibliography.
- Required sources
- At least four of the required readings or other primary sources.
- At least six of the Scripture passages listed for this course, or others that bear on your issue.
- At least two sources outside the Christian tradition for the factual description.
- Length and scope
- About 3,500 to 5,000 words, or twelve to sixteen pages, with footnotes and a bibliography. Keep it in your own notebook or document. Do not send it anywhere.
- Questions to address
- What precisely is the moral question, and what facts does it depend on?
- What do natural law, virtue ethics and divine command theory each say, and where do they differ?
- What does Scripture say, and how have Christians read it?
- What have Christian traditions taught, and where do they disagree?
- What is the strongest case against my conclusion, and how do I answer it?
- How confident am I, and why?
- Expected output
- A sourced ethical analysis of one contemporary issue, with a precise question, factual description, scriptural and historical sections, treatment of objections, a conclusion and a bibliography.
- How it will be evaluated
- It states a precise question and describes the facts accurately.
- It uses Scripture in context and acknowledges disagreement about its meaning.
- It uses historical theology accurately and cites sources.
- It uses philosophical reasoning clearly and defines its terms.
- It presents opposing views fairly and answers them honestly.
- It reaches a conclusion proportioned to the evidence and names what remains uncertain.
- Common mistakes to avoid
- Choosing a topic so broad that it cannot be answered in the space.
- Quoting verses without regard to their context.
- Describing another view only through its weakest representatives.
- Treating the facts as settled when they are disputed.
- Treating a tradition’s position as proof, without examining its reasons.
Knowledge check and self-assessment
What is natural law, and why have many Christians held it?
Natural law is the idea that there is a moral order built into human nature and the world, which reason can grasp, at least in its basic principles. Thomas Aquinas gave the classic form: natural law is the human participation in God’s eternal law. Paul’s statement that the law is written on the heart (Romans 2) is cited in support. Catholic thought has developed it most fully. Some Protestants and Orthodox writers accept a version of it, while others doubt that fallen reason can know morality reliably.
What is virtue ethics, and how does it differ from an ethics of rules?
Virtue ethics asks what kind of person one should be, and treats moral life as the formation of character through habits such as courage, justice, temperance and prudence. An ethics of rules asks mainly what actions are permitted or forbidden. Aristotle gave the classic account and Aquinas joined it to the Christian virtues of faith, hope and love. Most Christian traditions use both, since Scripture gives commands and also describes the shaping of the heart.
What is the Euthyphro problem for divine command theory?
In Plato’s dialogue, Socrates asks whether the gods love what is holy because it is holy, or whether it is holy because they love it. For divine command theory, the question is whether God commands something because it is good, or it is good because God commands it. The first makes goodness independent of God. The second seems to make morality arbitrary. Christian responses, such as Aquinas’s, say that goodness is rooted in God’s own nature, so neither horn is correct.
What does moral realism claim?
Moral realism holds that some moral claims are objectively true or false, independently of what any person or culture thinks. Many Christian thinkers hold it, since they believe that God is the source of moral order. Opponents, such as moral anti-realists, argue that moral claims express feelings or conventions. Realists reply that denying objectivity cannot account for the experience of moral obligation or the judgment that some acts are wrong whatever anyone thinks.
How do Christians differ in applying the Ten Commandments?
Churches number the commandments differently. Catholics and Lutherans generally follow the Augustinian numbering, while Orthodox and most Reformed churches follow another. Traditions also differ in how they treat the Sabbath, and in the use of the law. Lutherans emphasize its role in showing sin, the Reformed also teach a third use as a guide for believers, and Catholics treat the commandments as a foundation of the moral life. All affirm the command to love God and neighbor.
What are the main ways Christians have read the Sermon on the Mount?
Some, such as the Anabaptist tradition, read it as a direct rule for believers, including nonviolence. Catholics have often distinguished precepts binding on all from counsels for those called to a higher perfection. Lutherans have used it to show that no one can meet God’s demand, driving the hearer to grace. Some modern writers read it as an interim ethic, and others as an ideal that shapes the heart. Augustine’s commentary is the classic early treatment.
What are the main criteria of the just war tradition, and what is the pacifist reply?
The just war tradition, developed by Augustine and Aquinas and refined later, sets conditions for going to war and for conduct in war. These include just cause, legitimate authority, right intention, last resort, reasonable hope of success, proportionality, and the protection of noncombatants. Christian pacifists reply that Jesus commands love of enemies and refuses violence, so believers should never kill. Each side claims to take both Scripture and the protection of the innocent seriously.
Why is human dignity central to Christian ethics, and how is it grounded?
Christians ground human dignity in the claim that every person is made in the image of God (Genesis 1) and loved by God, and in the doctrine that the Son of God became human. This is the basis for protecting the poor, the weak and the unborn, and for forbidding murder and slavery. Traditions differ on what the image of God consists in, whether reason, relationship, rule or calling, but they agree that it belongs to every human being.
Judge your own progress
- When you finish the modules, answer the knowledge questions from memory, without notes. Aim for 70 percent or better; if you score lower, reread the relevant module and try again.
- Write your ethical analysis (the independent assignment). Wait three days, reread it, and mark every place where you were unfair to a view you reject.
- Check your work against the evaluation criteria in the assignment. Rate each criterion as strong, adequate or weak and write one sentence on how you would improve each weak one.
- Return to the key ideas of the course after 1 day, 7 days, 30 days and 90 days. At each point, explain aloud the three main moral theories and state one position from each tradition on a question studied in the course.
- You can explain natural law, virtue ethics and divine command theory and their main objections without notes.
- You can state the positions of the Catholic, Orthodox and Protestant traditions on the major topics of the course so that a member of each would recognize them.
- Your ethical analysis is precise, fair to opponents and proportioned in its conclusion.