Course 18 · Apologetics
World Religions
Learn what the major religious and nonreligious traditions teach, in terms their own followers would accept, and compare them with Christianity on revelation, salvation, God and human nature.
Overview
This course introduces the major world religions and several nonreligious positions, then compares them with Christianity on a fixed set of questions: how God or ultimate reality is understood, whether and how it is revealed, what authority sacred writings have, what humans are, and what salvation or liberation means.
The first aim is accurate description. Each tradition is presented as its own adherents would present it, using its own terms, texts and internal diversity. No tradition is treated as a poor version of another, and no religion is described through the criticisms of its opponents. The traditions covered are Judaism, Islam, Hinduism, Buddhism and Sikhism, together with deism, atheism, agnosticism and a selection of new religious movements.
The second aim is honest comparison. The course asks where the traditions agree, where they differ in ways that cannot be reconciled, and where similar words hide different meanings. It then studies the main Christian approaches to other religions, including exclusivism, inclusivism and pluralism, and explains how Catholic, Orthodox and Protestant Christians have reasoned about them.
By the end you will be able to describe another tradition accurately, compare it with Christianity without caricature, and state and defend a clear Christian position.
Objectives
- Describe the central beliefs, practices and sacred texts of Judaism, Islam, Hinduism, Buddhism and Sikhism in terms their adherents would accept.
- Explain the main varieties of deism, atheism and agnosticism and how each differs from the others.
- Identify key features of selected new religious movements and the problems involved in classifying and studying them.
- Compare the traditions on revelation, scriptural authority, the nature of God or ultimate reality, human nature and salvation.
- Distinguish exclusivism, inclusivism and pluralism and state a strong argument for each.
- Describe how Catholic, Orthodox and Protestant Christians have understood other religions.
- Identify cases in which the same word, such as God or salvation, has different meanings in different traditions.
- Avoid common distortions, such as describing a religion by its worst representatives or by its critics.
- Write a comparison of Christianity with another tradition and defend a clearly stated Christian position.
Course outline
Module 1 Studying Religions Fairly
Learn the methods and cautions of comparative study and the set of questions the course will ask of every tradition.
Topics
- Religious pluralism
- Religious exclusivism
- Comparative anthropology
Lessons
Module 2 Judaism and Islam
Study the two traditions closest to Christianity in their claims about one God, revelation and law, and describe what each says about Christianity.
Topics
- Judaism
- Islam
- Revelation
- Scripture and authority
Lessons
Module 3 Hinduism, Buddhism and Sikhism
Study the major traditions of South Asian origin, noting their internal diversity and their different ways of speaking about the ultimate and about liberation.
Topics
- Hinduism
- Buddhism
- Sikhism
- Salvation
- Divine nature
Lessons
Module 4 Deism, Atheism and Agnosticism
Define the main positions on God that are not tied to a historic religion, distinguishing the positions from one another and from caricature.
Topics
- Deism
- Atheism
- Agnosticism
Lessons
Module 5 New Religious Movements
Learn how scholars study newer movements, and how to describe selected groups accurately without either endorsing or caricaturing them.
Topics
- New religious movements
Lessons
Module 6 Comparing the Great Questions
Place the traditions side by side on revelation, divine nature, scripture, human nature and salvation, noting real agreement and real difference.
Topics
- Revelation
- Salvation
- Divine nature
- Scripture and authority
- Comparative anthropology
Lessons
Module 7 Christian Approaches to Other Religions
Study the main theological positions on the truth and salvation of those outside Christianity and how the three great traditions have reasoned about them.
Topics
- Christian approaches to other religions
- Religious pluralism
- Religious exclusivism
Lessons
Suggested schedule
| When | Work |
|---|---|
| Week 1 | Module 1: Studying Religions Fairly |
| Week 2 | Module 2: Judaism and Islam |
| Week 3 | Module 3: Hinduism, Buddhism and Sikhism |
| Week 4 | Module 4: Deism, Atheism and Agnosticism |
| Week 5 | Module 5: New Religious Movements |
| Week 6 | Module 6: Comparing the Great Questions |
| Week 7 | Module 7: Christian Approaches to Other Religions |
| Week 8 | Independent assignment and self-assessment |
Readings
Required
- Huston Smith, The World’s Religions
A readable survey of major religions. Good as a first book; read it critically.
How to use it: A widely used introduction to the major religions. Read the chapters on the traditions you study and note that the author writes with sympathy. Compare his descriptions with the self-descriptions of adherents.
Find in a library or bookstore catalog (Open Library) In the library - Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy, Religious Diversity (Pluralism)
Maps the views on how Christianity relates to other religions.
How to use it: Read for the philosophical positions on religious pluralism and exclusivism and the arguments for each.
Read online (Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy) In the library - Catholic Church, Catechism of the Catholic Church
The authoritative modern summary of Catholic teaching. Read it to understand what Catholics actually claim, in their own words.
How to use it: Read the sections on the church’s relation to non Christians and to other religions to learn the Catholic position in its own words.
Read online (Vatican) In the library - Timothy (Kallistos) Ware, The Orthodox Church
A widely used introduction to Orthodox history, worship and belief written by an Orthodox bishop.
How to use it: Read selectively for the Orthodox understanding of the church, salvation and those outside the visible church.
Find in a library or bookstore catalog (Open Library) In the library - C. S. Lewis, Mere Christianity
A clear, accessible case for central Christian belief, based on wartime radio talks. A good first book for apologetics.
How to use it: Read the early chapters on moral law and the later remarks on other religions. Treat it as one Christian’s popular argument and compare it with more technical treatments.
Find in a library or bookstore catalog (Open Library) In the library - David Bentley Hart, The Experience of God: Being, Consciousness, Bliss
An argument for the classical understanding of God across religious traditions, written by an Orthodox author.
How to use it: Read selectively for an argument that draws on classical theism across traditions, including those outside Christianity.
Find in a library or bookstore catalog (Open Library) In the library
Recommended
- Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy, Hume on Religion
Introduces Hume’s critique of natural theology and miracles.
How to use it: Read for Hume’s account of the natural history of religion and the arguments of the deists.
Read online (Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy) In the library - Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy, Hiddenness of God
The argument from divine hiddenness and the replies to it.
How to use it: Use for the argument about divine hiddenness, which atheists and agnostics cite.
Read online (Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy) In the library - Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy, Trinity
How the doctrine developed and how philosophers have tried to make sense of it.
How to use it: Use to describe the Trinity accurately, since Judaism and Islam respond to it.
Read online (Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy) In the library - Justin Martyr, The First Apology
A second-century defense of Christianity addressed to the Roman emperor. The model of early Christian reasoning with outsiders.
How to use it: Read for an early Christian approach to philosophy and pagan religion.
Read online (New Advent (Church Fathers)) In the library - Alvin Plantinga, Warranted Christian Belief
A leading philosopher argues that Christian belief can be rational without being proved by arguments. Advanced.
How to use it: Read selectively for the chapter on pluralism and the argument that exclusive Christian belief can be rational.
Find in a library or bookstore catalog (Open Library) In the library - Blaise Pascal, Pensées
Notes toward a defense of Christianity by a great mathematician. Memorable on faith, reason and the human condition.
How to use it: Read selectively for Pascal’s remarks on the human condition and the claims of different faiths.
Read online (Christian Classics Ethereal Library) In the library - Justo L. Gonzalez, The Story of Christianity
A standard one-volume or two-volume survey of church history from the apostles to the present.
How to use it: Use for the history of Christian contact with Judaism, Islam and the religions of Asia.
Find in a library or bookstore catalog (Open Library) In the library - Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy, The Natural Law Tradition in Ethics
A scholarly overview of natural law from Aquinas to the present.
How to use it: Read for the argument that moral knowledge is shared across traditions.
Read online (Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy) In the library - Jewish Publication Society, The Hebrew Bible in English (JPS translation)
A Jewish English translation of the Hebrew Bible, so that Christians read the Scriptures of Judaism as Jews present them.
How to use it: Read selectively, to see the Scriptures of Judaism in a Jewish translation.
Read online (Mechon Mamre) In the library - The Qur’an, The Qur’an in English translation
The scripture of Islam. Muslims hold that it is properly the Arabic text, so an English translation is an aid to reading. Use a translation that Muslim readers accept.
How to use it: Read selectively with a translation that Muslim readers accept, and remember that Muslims hold the Arabic to be the Qur’an itself.
Read online with several translations (Quran.com) In the library - Tracey R. Rich, Judaism 101 (JewFAQ)
A plain-language introduction to Jewish belief, practice, texts and holidays. It is written from inside the tradition, from a traditional Jewish perspective, so it states how Jews describe their own faith.
How to use it: An introduction to Judaism written from inside the tradition.
Read online (Judaism 101) In the library - Narada Mahathera, Buddhism in a Nutshell
A short Theravada introduction to the life of the Buddha, the Four Noble Truths, the Eightfold Path, karma and rebirth. It is written from inside the tradition by a Buddhist monk, so it shows how a Theravada Buddhist presents his own teaching.
How to use it: An introduction to Buddhism written from inside the tradition.
Read online (Access to Insight) In the library - Editors of Hinduism Today (Himalayan Academy), What Is Hinduism?
A broad introduction to Hindu belief, worship and life, written by Hindu monastics. It is written from inside the tradition, from a Shaiva viewpoint, so other Hindus may describe some points differently.
How to use it: An introduction to Hinduism written from inside the tradition.
Read online (Himalayan Academy) In the library - G. S. Sidhu, Introduction to Sikhism
A short introduction to Sikh teaching and history, published by a Sikh organization. It is written from inside the tradition, so it shows how Sikhs present their own faith.
How to use it: An introduction to Sikhism written from inside the tradition. For Islam, use the Qur’an entry and ask a Muslim reader about introductions they recommend.
Read online (Sikh Missionary Society U.K.) In the library
Passages in the Scripture Study
- Deuteronomy 6:4 The Shema, the central confession of Judaism, which Christians also share as part of the Old Testament.
- Genesis 12:3 God’s promise to Abraham that all families of the earth will be blessed, a text important to Jews, Christians and Muslims in different ways.
- Isaiah 45:22 God calls all the ends of the earth to turn and be saved.
- Jonah 4:11 God’s concern for a foreign city, relevant to Old Testament views of the nations.
- John 14:6 Jesus says he is the way, the truth and the life. The central text in the debate over exclusivism.
- Acts 4:12 Peter says there is salvation in no one else. Read it with its context in the debate on exclusivism.
- Acts 17:22 Paul speaks to the Athenians, quoting their poets and engaging their religion. A model for dialogue.
- Romans 1:20 God’s invisible qualities are seen in creation. Important for natural knowledge of God.
- Romans 2:14 Gentiles who do not have the law show the law written on their hearts.
- 1 Timothy 2:4 God desires all people to be saved, a text used in inclusivist and universal arguments.
- John 1:9 The true light that enlightens everyone, used by early Christian writers who spoke of seeds of truth in other traditions.
- 1 Peter 3:15 Be ready to give a reason for hope with gentleness and respect.
- Matthew 28:19 The commission to make disciples of all nations.
- Luke 10:33 The Samaritan who shows mercy, in a story told to a question about neighbor.
Independent assignment
Christianity and Another Tradition: A Comparison and a Defended Position
- Purpose
- To describe another major religious tradition accurately and fairly, compare it with Christianity on central questions, and defend a clearly stated Christian position on one point of difference.
- Instructions
- Choose one tradition other than Christianity from those studied in the course (Judaism, Islam, Hinduism, Buddhism or Sikhism).
- Write an account of that tradition in terms its own adherents would accept. Use its own texts and terms, note its internal diversity, and avoid describing it through its critics.
- Summarize how an informed adherent of that tradition would describe Christianity and what they would find most objectionable or mistaken.
- Compare the two traditions on God or ultimate reality, revelation, scripture and authority, human nature and salvation. For each, state clearly where they agree, where they differ, and where the same word means different things.
- Choose one significant difference and state a Christian position on it as clearly as possible, naming which Christian tradition or traditions hold it.
- Present the strongest argument that an informed adherent of the other tradition would give against your Christian position.
- Defend your position by responding to that argument directly, using Scripture, reason and the history of the church. State what you do not claim.
- Reflect on how your own approach to other religions (exclusivist, inclusivist, pluralist or another) shaped the way you wrote, and how your position would change if it were different.
- Required sources
- At least four of the required readings, and at least two primary texts or recognized scholarly sources from the other tradition.
- At least five of the Scripture passages listed for this course.
- At least one Catholic, one Orthodox and one Protestant source on the relation of Christianity to other religions.
- Length and scope
- About 3,000 to 4,500 words, or ten to fourteen pages. Keep it in your own notebook or document. Do not send it anywhere.
- Questions to address
- Would an adherent of this tradition recognize my description as fair?
- Which differences are real and which come from different uses of the same words?
- What is the strongest objection to my Christian position?
- What do the Catholic, Orthodox and Protestant traditions each say about this question?
- What do I claim, and what do I leave to God?
- Expected output
- A written comparison and defense, with a fair account of the other tradition, a statement of the Christian position, the strongest objection from the other side, a reply and a reflection on method.
- How it will be evaluated
- It describes the other tradition accurately, in terms its adherents would accept.
- It acknowledges internal diversity within both traditions.
- It identifies real differences and does not blur them or exaggerate them.
- It states the strongest objection fairly before answering it.
- It states a Christian position clearly, with reasons from Scripture, tradition and argument.
- It is respectful in tone and avoids caricature.
- Common mistakes to avoid
- Describing the other religion by its worst representatives or by its critics.
- Treating a tradition as uniform when it has many schools.
- Assuming the other tradition asks the same questions as Christianity.
- Using the same word, such as God, salvation or sin, as though it meant the same thing in both.
- Dismissing a view without stating the reasons its adherents give for it.
Knowledge check and self-assessment
What is the difference between exclusivism, inclusivism and pluralism?
In the usual sense, exclusivism holds that salvation is found through Christ alone and usually through explicit faith in him. Inclusivism holds that salvation is found through Christ alone but that people who have not heard of him may be saved through him in a way known to God. Pluralism holds that several religions are valid paths to salvation or to the ultimate. Christians have held the first two, and the third is controversial among Christians. Each term is used in more than one way, so a writer should define it.
What is the Shema, and why does it matter for comparing Judaism and Christianity?
The Shema is the declaration in Deuteronomy 6:4 that the Lord our God, the Lord is one. It is central to Jewish prayer and belief. Christians also affirm the one God but understand God as Trinity, which Jews generally consider a departure from strict monotheism. Understanding the Shema helps a student see why the Christian claim about Jesus and the Trinity is a serious issue between the traditions and not a small point.
What does Islam teach about Jesus, and where does it differ from Christianity?
Muslims honor Jesus (Isa) as a prophet and messenger of God, born of the virgin Mary, and the Quran affirms miracles performed by him. Islam teaches that God is absolutely one and rejects the Trinity and the divinity of Jesus. Most Muslims also hold that Jesus was not crucified in the way Christians say, though interpretations of the relevant verse vary. Christians affirm that Jesus is the Son of God who died and rose again.
What is the Buddhist teaching of the Four Noble Truths, and how does it differ from the Christian view of the human problem?
The Four Noble Truths state that life involves suffering, that suffering has a cause in craving, that it can end, and that the Eightfold Path leads to its end. Buddhism does not teach a creator God, and liberation is understood as awakening from ignorance and attachment. Christianity teaches that the human problem is sin and separation from God, and that salvation is God’s gift in Christ. Both address suffering, but the diagnosis and the cure are different.
Why is it difficult to define Hinduism?
Hinduism has no single founder, creed or central authority. It includes many schools, texts and practices. Some traditions stress devotion to one deity, such as Vishnu, Shiva or Devi, while others, like Advaita Vedanta, teach that ultimate reality is one and non dual. Common themes include dharma, karma, rebirth and liberation, but they are understood differently in different schools. An accurate account must describe this diversity instead of reducing it to a single doctrine.
What does Sikhism teach about God and the Gurus?
Sikhism teaches belief in one God, who is formless and present in creation, and teaches that devotion, honest living and service lead toward union with God. It recognizes ten human Gurus, beginning with Guru Nanak, and the scripture, the Guru Granth Sahib, which Sikhs treat as the eternal Guru. Sikhism arose in the Punjab region from the 15th century and is a distinct religion, not a blend of Islam and Hinduism.
How does deism differ from atheism and from Christian theism?
Deism holds that a creator exists, usually known by reason and nature, but rejects special revelation, miracles and often the idea that God acts in history. Atheism denies that any god exists. Christian theism holds that God created the world and also acts in it and reveals himself in Scripture and in Christ. Deism was influential in the 18th century. The three differ in what they claim about whether God exists and whether God has spoken.
Why should a student avoid assuming that different religions mean the same thing by words such as God or salvation?
Because the words belong to different systems of thought. God in Islam is strictly one and not a Trinity, in Advaita Hinduism ultimate reality is without attributes, and in much of Buddhism there is no creator. Salvation may mean forgiveness, submission, liberation from rebirth or awakening. Using one word hides these differences and leads to false claims of agreement or disagreement. Careful comparison defines each term within each tradition first.
Judge your own progress
- When you finish the modules, answer the knowledge questions from memory, without notes. Aim for 70 percent or better; if you score lower, reread the relevant module and try again.
- Write your comparison (the independent assignment). Wait three days, reread it, and mark every statement about the other tradition that you have not checked against that tradition’s own sources.
- Check your work against the evaluation criteria in the assignment. Rate each criterion as strong, adequate or weak and write one sentence on how you would improve each weak one.
- Return to the key ideas of the course after 1 day, 7 days, 30 days and 90 days. At each point, describe one other tradition as an adherent would, and state the difference between exclusivism, inclusivism and pluralism.
- You can describe each tradition in terms its adherents would recognize.
- You can compare traditions on specific questions without blurring real differences.
- Your Christian position is clearly stated, supported and respectful toward those who disagree.