Course 11 · Theology and Tradition
Church, Sacraments, and Authority
Study what the church is, how the three great traditions understand authority, tradition and Scripture, and what they teach about the sacraments, worship and the unity of Christians.
Overview
This course examines two linked subjects. Ecclesiology is the doctrine of the church: what it is, what it is for, and who has the right to teach and to govern in it. Sacramentology is the doctrine of the sacraments: the acts of worship in which, according to the churches, God gives grace through visible signs. The two cannot be separated, because most of the major disagreements among Christians concern who may administer the sacraments and by what authority.
The course begins with the nature and mission of the church and with the question of how the church is visible and invisible. It then follows the development of ministry and of apostolic succession from the New Testament and the earliest writers. It sets out three systems of authority side by side: the Catholic teaching on the papacy and the magisterium, the Orthodox teaching on conciliarity, and the Protestant principles of authority such as Scripture alone. Each is described as its own members would describe it, and the strongest objections of the others are stated honestly.
The middle part turns to the sacraments: how they are defined, how many there are, and what each tradition teaches about baptism, the Eucharist or Holy Communion, confession and reconciliation, and ordination. It also considers liturgical worship, including how Christians worship in forms ranging from the ancient liturgies to unscripted gatherings.
The final part treats schism and Christian unity, including the East-West division of 1054 (more exactly a longer process), the Reformation divisions and modern ecumenical efforts. The course does not argue which church is right. It teaches you to state each position accurately, to see where the real disagreement lies, and to compare them in writing. All work is done in your own notebook; nothing is submitted or graded by this site.
Objectives
- Explain the biblical images of the church and the meaning of the four marks in the Nicene Creed.
- Distinguish the visible and invisible church and explain why the distinction matters.
- Describe the development of ministry and apostolic succession from the New Testament to the third century.
- State the Catholic teaching on papal primacy and infallibility and the objections to it.
- State the Orthodox teaching on conciliarity and the role of the bishops, and the Orthodox objections to papal claims.
- State the Protestant principles of authority, including sola scriptura, and the differences among Lutheran, Reformed, Anglican and other Protestants.
- Explain the relationship of Scripture and tradition in each of the three traditions.
- Define sacrament and compare the main teachings on baptism, the Eucharist, confession and ordination.
- Describe the elements and purposes of liturgical worship and how traditions differ.
- Trace the major schisms and recent efforts at Christian unity, and compare the three traditions’ authority and sacramental life in writing.
Course outline
Module 1 What the Church Is
Study the New Testament images of the church, the creedal marks, and the idea that the church has both a visible and an unseen side.
Topics
- Nature and mission of the Church
- Visible and invisible Church
Lessons
Module 2 Ministry and Apostolic Succession
See how offices developed in the early church and what the traditions mean by apostolic succession.
Topics
- Apostolic succession
- Ordination
Lessons
Module 3 Scripture, Tradition and Church Authority
Compare how the traditions relate Scripture, tradition and the teaching office of the church.
Topics
- Scripture and tradition
- Church authority
Lessons
Module 4 Three Systems of Authority
Study the papacy, Orthodox conciliarity and the Protestant principles of authority, each in its own terms and with its strongest objections.
Topics
- Papal primacy
- Orthodox conciliarity
- Protestant principles of authority
Lessons
Module 5 Sacramental Theology
Define the term sacrament and compare the main traditions’ understanding of how signs and grace are related.
Topics
- Sacramental theology
Lessons
Module 6 Baptism and the Eucharist
Study the two practices that nearly all Christians keep, and the differing explanations of what happens in them.
Topics
- Baptism
- Eucharist and Holy Communion
Lessons
Module 7 Reconciliation and Liturgical Worship
Study how the church deals with sin after baptism and how it worships, from ancient liturgies to modern gatherings.
Topics
- Confession and reconciliation
- Liturgical worship
Lessons
Module 8 Schism and Christian Unity
Follow the major divisions of the church and the efforts to heal them, and learn how to compare the traditions fairly.
Topics
- Schism and Christian unity
Lessons
Suggested schedule
| When | Work |
|---|---|
| Week 1 | Module 1: What the Church Is |
| Week 2 | Module 2: Ministry and Apostolic Succession |
| Week 3 | Module 3: Scripture, Tradition and Church Authority |
| Week 4 | Module 4: Three Systems of Authority |
| Week 5 | Module 5: Sacramental Theology |
| Week 6 | Module 6: Baptism and the Eucharist |
| Week 7 | Module 7: Reconciliation and Liturgical Worship |
| Week 8 | Module 8: Schism and Christian Unity |
| Week 9 | Independent assignment and self-assessment |
Readings
Required
- Catholic Church, Catechism of the Catholic Church
The authoritative modern summary of Catholic teaching. Read it to understand what Catholics actually claim, in their own words.
How to use it: Read the parts on the church, the sacraments, baptism, the Eucharist, penance and holy orders. Use it as the Catholic account in its own words.
Read online (Vatican) In the library - Council of Trent (1545-1563), Canons and Decrees of the Council of Trent
The Catholic response to the Reformation on Scripture, justification and the sacraments. Read it as a Catholic statement of its own position.
How to use it: Read the decrees on the sacraments in general, baptism, the Eucharist, penance and orders.
Read the canons and decrees (Hanover College) In the library - Timothy (Kallistos) Ware, The Orthodox Church
A widely used introduction to Orthodox history, worship and belief written by an Orthodox bishop.
How to use it: Read the chapters on the church, the councils and the sacraments for an Orthodox account. Read selectively.
Find in a library or bookstore catalog (Open Library) In the library - Westminster Assembly, The Westminster Confession of Faith
The classic confession of English-speaking Reformed and Presbyterian Protestantism. It is printed in Schaff’s volume of Protestant creeds; use the contents list to find it.
How to use it: Read the chapters on the church, the sacraments, baptism and the Lord’s Supper as a Reformed statement.
Creeds of Christendom, vol. 3 (Christian Classics Ethereal Library) In the library - Ignatius of Antioch, Epistle to the Ephesians
One of the seven letters Ignatius wrote on his way to martyrdom. Important in the debate about bishops, church and Eucharist.
How to use it: Read the whole letter for the early picture of the bishop and the gathered church. Compare with the other Ignatian letters if you have time.
Read online (New Advent (Church Fathers)) In the library - Irenaeus of Lyon, Against Heresies
The first great defense of apostolic teaching against Gnostic rivals. Essential for the question of how Scripture and tradition relate.
How to use it: Read Book 3, chapters 1 to 4, on Scripture, apostolic succession and the rule of faith.
Read online (New Advent (Church Fathers)) In the library
Recommended
- Martin Luther, The Small Catechism
Luther’s short teaching on the Commandments, the Creed, the Lord’s Prayer and the sacraments.
How to use it: A short Lutheran statement on baptism, the Lord’s Supper and confession.
Read online (Christian Classics Ethereal Library) In the library - John Calvin, Institutes of the Christian Religion
The most influential Reformed theology. Book IV is the best statement of the Reformed view of church and sacraments.
How to use it: Read Book 4 on the church, its ministry and the sacraments.
Read online (Christian Classics Ethereal Library) In the library - Zacharias Ursinus and Caspar Olevianus, The Heidelberg Catechism
A warm, pastoral Reformation catechism. A good short example of how Protestants teach the faith to beginners.
How to use it: A Reformed statement on the sacraments and church discipline.
Read online (Christian Classics Ethereal Library) In the library - Philip Schaff, Creeds of Christendom, vol. 3: The Creeds of the Evangelical Protestant Churches
One volume that collects the major Protestant confessions (Lutheran, Reformed, Anglican and others) so you can compare them side by side.
How to use it: Use it to read the Augsburg Confession, the Thirty-Nine Articles and other Protestant confessions on the church and sacraments.
Read online (Christian Classics Ethereal Library) In the library - Tertullian, The Prescription Against Heretics
A sharp early argument about who may interpret Scripture and by what authority. Read it alongside Irenaeus.
How to use it: An early argument about authority and apostolic teaching; compare with Irenaeus.
Read online (New Advent (Church Fathers)) In the library - Philip Schaff and Henry Wace, eds., The Seven Ecumenical Councils (Nicene and Post-Nicene Fathers, Series 2, vol. 14)
The decrees and canons of Nicaea, Constantinople, Ephesus and Chalcedon with the surrounding history. The primary text for Courses 5, 6 and 9.
How to use it: Use it for the conciliar model of authority and for the canons on the church.
Read online (Christian Classics Ethereal Library) In the library - John of Damascus, An Exposition of the Orthodox Faith
The eighth-century summary of Eastern doctrine. A standard way into how Orthodox theology organizes the faith.
How to use it: For the Orthodox account of the sacraments and of the church as it was received.
Read online (New Advent (Church Fathers)) In the library - John Chrysostom, On the Priesthood
A fourth-century dialogue on the weight of the priestly office. Useful for the questions of ordination and church authority.
How to use it: On the weight of the priestly office.
Read online (New Advent (Church Fathers)) In the library - Second Vatican Council, Lumen Gentium (Dogmatic Constitution on the Church)
The Catholic Church’s fullest modern statement on what the church is, on bishops, the laity and the relation to other Christians.
How to use it: Read the opening chapters on the nature of the church.
Read online (Vatican) In the library - First Vatican Council, Decrees of the First Vatican Council (including Pastor Aeternus on papal primacy and infallibility)
The decrees that defined papal primacy and infallibility. Read them with the Orthodox and Protestant objections in view.
How to use it: For the Catholic definition of papal primacy and infallibility.
Read online (Papal Encyclicals Online) In the library - Alexander Schmemann, For the Life of the World
A short and widely loved Orthodox introduction to the sacramental view of life and worship.
How to use it: An accessible Orthodox view of sacrament and worship.
Find in a library or bookstore catalog (Open Library) In the library
Passages in the Scripture Study
- Matthew 16:18 Jesus says he will build his church on this rock; a text central to debates over Peter and the papacy.
- Acts 15:6 The apostles and elders meet to consider the question of Gentile believers; a model for conciliar decision.
- John 20:23 Jesus gives the disciples authority to forgive and retain sins; used in teaching on confession.
- 2 Timothy 2:2 Entrust what you have heard to faithful people who can teach others; used in teaching on apostolic succession.
- Titus 1:5 Titus is to appoint elders in every town.
- 1 Timothy 3:1 The office of overseer and its qualifications.
- 2 Timothy 3:16 All Scripture is breathed out by God; a text for the authority of Scripture.
- 2 Thessalonians 2:15 Stand firm and hold to the traditions you were taught, by word or by letter.
- 1 Peter 2:9 A chosen race, a royal priesthood; used in the Protestant teaching on the priesthood of believers.
- Ephesians 4:4 One body and one Spirit; a basis for unity.
- John 17:21 Jesus prays that his followers may be one.
- Matthew 28:19 The command to make disciples and baptize.
- Romans 6:4 We were buried with him by baptism into death; a key text for baptism.
- John 6:53 Unless you eat the flesh of the Son of Man and drink his blood, you have no life in you; read in many ways in debates about the Eucharist.
- 1 Corinthians 11:24 This is my body, which is for you; Paul’s account of the institution of the Lord’s Supper.
Independent assignment
A Comparison of Ecclesial Authority and Sacramental Life in Three Traditions
- Purpose
- To compare Catholic, Eastern Orthodox and major Protestant understandings of authority in the church and of the sacraments, so that a member of each tradition would recognize their own view and the points of disagreement would be clear.
- Instructions
- Choose the Protestant traditions you will include (at least two, for example Lutheran and Reformed, or Anglican and Baptist) and list the primary sources you will use for each of the three main traditions.
- Create a comparison table in your notebook with these rows: what the church is, apostolic succession, the role of Scripture, the role of tradition, the highest teaching authority, the number and nature of the sacraments, baptism, the Eucharist, confession, ordination and worship.
- Write a section on the nature of the church and apostolic succession that states each tradition in its own terms and notes what the earliest writers (Clement, Ignatius, Irenaeus) show.
- Write a section on authority that explains papal primacy and infallibility, Orthodox conciliarity and the Protestant principles, and states the strongest objection each tradition raises against the others.
- Write a section on the sacraments that explains how each tradition defines a sacrament and compares baptism, the Eucharist, confession and ordination, using primary texts such as Trent, a catechism and a confession.
- Describe liturgical worship in the three traditions in a short fair paragraph, noting what each regards as essential.
- Identify three points of real disagreement and three points where the traditions use different words for something similar. Explain how you decided.
- Write a short account of the main schisms and unity efforts that explains why the divisions came about, from the sources and not from polemic.
- Close with a separately labeled paragraph, if you wish, that states your own tentative conclusions, kept distinct from the descriptions.
- Required sources
- At least four of the required readings, including at least one Catholic, one Orthodox and one Protestant source.
- At least eight of the Scripture passages for this course.
- At least two early Christian writers (for example Ignatius, Irenaeus, Tertullian).
- Length and scope
- About 4,000 to 5,500 words, or twelve to eighteen pages, plus the comparison table. Keep it in your own notebook or document. Do not send it anywhere.
- Questions to address
- How does each tradition answer the question of who has the final word on teaching?
- What does each tradition mean by apostolic succession?
- What does each tradition teach about what happens in baptism and the Eucharist?
- Where is the real disagreement, and where is it a matter of words?
- Which source from each tradition would its members say states their view best?
- Expected output
- A written, referenced comparison with a table, sections on authority and the sacraments, and a short statement of the writer’s own conclusions, labeled as such.
- How it will be evaluated
- It states each position in terms that its own adherents would accept.
- It uses primary sources from each tradition and cites them accurately.
- It separates what the traditions teach from what the writer thinks.
- It identifies real and verbal disagreements correctly.
- It treats the early church evidence honestly, without reading later positions back into it.
- It is organized clearly and written in plain, fair language.
- Common mistakes to avoid
- Describing the Orthodox as Catholics without the pope, or Protestants as a single group.
- Quoting a critic of a tradition in place of the tradition itself.
- Treating apostolic succession as a single doctrine when the traditions use it in different ways.
- Assuming that the early church held the later positions in a developed form without evidence.
- Writing a debate victory instead of a description.
Knowledge check and self-assessment
What are the four marks of the church in the Nicene Creed?
The creed confesses one, holy, catholic and apostolic church. One refers to the unity of the church in Christ. Holy means set apart by God and made holy by him. Catholic means universal, for all people and all places, and whole in its faith. Apostolic means grounded in the teaching and mission of the apostles. The traditions agree on the words and differ in how they apply them. Catholics and Orthodox identify the marks with a visible communion, and many Protestants emphasize the invisible church.
What does apostolic succession mean?
It is the idea that the church’s ministry and teaching continue from the apostles. Catholic and Orthodox churches understand it as an unbroken line of ordinations by bishops back to the apostles, carrying authority to ordain and to teach. Some Protestants, including Anglicans, also keep the historic succession of bishops. Many Protestant churches understand apostolic succession as faithfulness to the apostolic teaching in Scripture, not as a line of ordinations. Irenaeus in the second century appealed to lists of bishops as evidence of reliable teaching.
Explain the Catholic teaching on papal primacy and papal infallibility.
Catholics hold that Christ gave Peter a special role and that the bishop of Rome, as his successor, has universal jurisdiction over the church. The First Vatican Council in 1870 defined that when the pope speaks ex cathedra, on faith or morals, as pastor of all Christians, he teaches without error. It is not a claim that the pope is sinless or infallible in all that he says. The Orthodox and Protestants reject the definition, the Orthodox largely because they hold that authority belongs to the bishops together in council.
What is Orthodox conciliarity?
Conciliarity, sometimes called sobornost in Russian theology, is the teaching that the highest authority in the church lies in the bishops gathered in council and, beyond that, in the whole church’s reception of what the council decides. The Orthodox recognize seven ecumenical councils. The bishop of Rome is given an honor of first place in the early church but no power to override the others, in their view. A council is true when the whole church accepts it, which is why some councils were rejected after the fact.
What do Protestants mean by sola scriptura, and what do critics say?
Sola scriptura, Scripture alone, means that Scripture is the only infallible and final authority for doctrine, while church councils, creeds and teachers are subordinate and can err. Most Reformers did not reject tradition; they held that it must be tested by Scripture. Critics, Catholic and Orthodox, say that the doctrine cannot itself be found in Scripture, that it leads to disagreement because there is no final interpreter, and that the New Testament canon was itself received through the church.
Compare the main Christian views of what happens in the Eucharist.
Catholics teach transubstantiation: the bread and wine become the body and blood of Christ while keeping the appearance of bread and wine. The Orthodox affirm the real presence and call it a mystery, without adopting the philosophical term. Lutherans teach that Christ’s body and blood are truly present in, with and under the bread and wine. Reformed Christians teach a real spiritual presence received by faith. Zwinglian and many Baptist traditions understand the Supper chiefly as a memorial.
What is the difference between infant baptism and believers baptism, and what do both claim?
Catholic, Orthodox, Lutheran, Anglican and Reformed churches baptize infants, understanding baptism as God’s act and a sign or means of grace given within the covenant family of the church. Baptist and many other churches baptize only those who profess faith, and understand baptism as the believer’s public response. The early evidence for infant baptism is debated, and scholars disagree about how widespread it was in the second century. Both sides appeal to Scripture and to the early church.
Why did the church divide in 1054, and why is that date given with caution?
In 1054 a papal legate and the patriarch of Constantinople excommunicated each other. The dispute involved the authority of Rome, the filioque clause in the creed, and differences in practice. Historians generally see 1054 as a symbolic moment in a longer estrangement that developed over several centuries and became more settled after the Fourth Crusade in 1204. In 1965 Pope Paul VI and Patriarch Athenagoras lifted the mutual excommunications of 1054, although full communion has not been restored.
Judge your own progress
- When you finish the modules, answer the knowledge questions from memory, without notes. Aim for 70 percent or better; if you score lower, reread the relevant module and try again.
- Write your comparison (the independent assignment). Wait three days, reread it, and mark every place where you described a tradition by its critics or from memory instead of its own texts.
- Check your work against the evaluation criteria in the assignment. Rate each criterion as strong, adequate or weak and write one sentence on how you would improve each weak one.
- Return to the key ideas of the course after 1 day, 7 days, 30 days and 90 days. At each point, state in a minute how each of the three traditions answers the question of final authority.
- You can state each tradition’s view of authority and the sacraments so that a member of that tradition would recognize it.
- You can distinguish real disagreement from differences of vocabulary and give examples of each.
- You can use early Christian sources honestly, without reading later positions back into them.