Course 7 · Foundations
New Testament Theology and History
Study the New Testament in its historical setting and as theology: Jesus and the gospels, Acts, Paul, John, and the early church’s beliefs, leadership and hope.
Overview
This course reads the New Testament in the world where it was written, a Jewish world under Roman rule. It begins with the Second Temple Judaism and the Roman occupation that formed the setting of Jesus and the apostles. It then studies the gospels as books: how they are written, what kind of writing they are, how they relate to each other, and what scholars have said about the historical Jesus.
It then turns to the spread of the church in Acts and to the two largest voices in the New Testament, Paul and John. It asks what each teaches about God, Christ, salvation and the Spirit, and how their writings are alike and different. The final modules cover the early church’s hope for the end, the authority of the apostles, the way the first churches were organized, and how the New Testament relates to the Old.
Scholars disagree about many questions here: who wrote some of the books, how they were composed, how much history can be recovered, and how to read Paul and John. The course sets out the main positions plainly, separates evidence from inference, and marks which views are widely held and which are contested. Catholic, Orthodox and Protestant readings are stated in terms their own members would accept.
By the end you will be able to place each New Testament writing in its setting, explain the main theology of the gospels, Paul and John, discuss the debates about Jesus and the synoptic gospels with fairness, and compare Pauline and Johannine thought in a careful written study.
Objectives
- Describe the political, religious and social setting of Judea and Galilee under Roman rule.
- Summarize the main groups of Second Temple Judaism and their beliefs, and explain how they appear in the gospels.
- Explain the main approaches to the historical Jesus and the criteria scholars use, and state their limits.
- Describe the genre, authorship questions and composition of each gospel.
- Explain the synoptic problem and compare the leading solutions, including Markan priority and the two source hypothesis.
- Summarize the story of Acts and the spread of the church, and explain how Acts relates to Paul’s letters.
- Explain the main themes of Pauline theology and the main themes of Johannine theology.
- Describe the early Christian hope for the end and the main ways of reading it.
- Explain what apostolic authority meant and how the first churches were organized.
- Compare Pauline and Johannine theology, naming shared convictions and meaningful differences.
Course outline
Module 1 The World of the New Testament
Learn the Jewish and Roman setting in which Jesus lived and the church began.
Topics
- Historical context of Second Temple Judaism
- Roman occupation and Jewish political life
Lessons
Module 2 Jesus in History
See what historians can say about Jesus, how they reason about it, and where Christian faith makes further claims.
Topics
- Historical Jesus research
Lessons
Module 3 The Gospels as Books
Study what kind of writing the gospels are, who wrote them, how they came to be, and how the first three relate.
Topics
- Gospel authorship, genre and composition
- Synoptic problem
Lessons
Module 4 Acts and the Spread of the Church
Follow the movement from Jerusalem to Rome and consider how Acts presents the apostles and the church.
Topics
- Acts and early Christian expansion
Lessons
Module 5 Pauline Theology
Study Paul’s life, his letters and his main ideas, including the debates over how to read him.
Topics
- Pauline theology
Lessons
Module 6 Johannine Theology
Study the gospel and letters of John, their themes and the questions about how they were written.
Topics
- Johannine theology
Lessons
Module 7 Hope, Authority and Church Order
Study what the first Christians expected about the end, who held authority among them, and how they organized their communities.
Topics
- Early Christian eschatology
- Apostolic authority
- Early ecclesiology
Lessons
Module 8 The Testaments Together
Examine how the New Testament uses the Old, how the two Testaments are related, and how to bring Paul and John into comparison.
Topics
- Relationship between the Old and New Testaments
- Pauline theology
- Johannine theology
Lessons
Suggested schedule
| When | Work |
|---|---|
| Week 1 | Module 1: The World of the New Testament |
| Week 2 | Module 2: Jesus in History |
| Week 3 | Module 3: The Gospels as Books |
| Week 4 | Module 4: Acts and the Spread of the Church |
| Week 5 | Module 5: Pauline Theology |
| Week 6 | Module 6: Johannine Theology |
| Week 7 | Module 7: Hope, Authority and Church Order |
| Week 8 | Module 8: The Testaments Together |
| Week 9 | Independent assignment and self-assessment |
Readings
Required
- Richard Bauckham, Jesus and the Eyewitnesses
Argues that the Gospels rest on eyewitness testimony. Important and debated.
How to use it: Read selectively for an argument that the gospels rest on eyewitness testimony. Note where other scholars disagree and write down their reasons.
Find in a library or bookstore catalog (Open Library) In the library - N. T. Wright, The Resurrection of the Son of God
A major scholarly argument about what the first Christians meant by resurrection and why they believed it happened. Long and demanding.
How to use it: Read selectively on Second Temple Jewish hopes, Paul’s teaching on resurrection and the gospel accounts. Treat it as one scholar’s argument.
Find in a library or bookstore catalog (Open Library) In the library - Irenaeus of Lyon, Against Heresies
The first great defense of apostolic teaching against Gnostic rivals. Essential for the question of how Scripture and tradition relate.
How to use it: Read Book 3, chapters 1 to 4, on the four gospels and apostolic authority, as an early statement of how the church regarded the apostles.
Read online (New Advent (Church Fathers)) In the library - Ignatius of Antioch, Epistle to the Ephesians
One of the seven letters Ignatius wrote on his way to martyrdom. Important in the debate about bishops, church and Eucharist.
How to use it: Read the whole letter for an early picture of church order centered on the bishop.
Read online (New Advent (Church Fathers)) In the library - Clement of Rome, Letter to the Corinthians (1 Clement)
A letter from Rome to Corinth near the end of the first century. An early window into how the churches understood order and authority.
How to use it: Read for early views on apostolic succession, order and conflict in a church.
Read online (New Advent (Church Fathers)) In the library - F. F. Bruce, The New Testament Documents: Are They Reliable?
A short classic defense of the historical reliability of the New Testament. Read it with a critical eye and compare it with newer work.
How to use it: Read the chapters on the date and character of the gospels and Acts as a traditional introduction, and compare with newer work.
Find in a library or bookstore catalog (Open Library) In the library - Bruce M. Metzger, The Canon of the New Testament
A standard history of how the New Testament canon was formed.
How to use it: Read selectively on how the New Testament writings came to be recognized.
Find in a library or bookstore catalog (Open Library) In the library
Recommended
- Justin Martyr, The First Apology
A second-century defense of Christianity addressed to the Roman emperor. The model of early Christian reasoning with outsiders.
How to use it: Read selectively for an early description of Christian worship and for how Christians described Jesus to outsiders.
Read online (New Advent (Church Fathers)) In the library - Athanasius of Alexandria, On the Incarnation of the Word
A short and clear account of why God became man. It is the best first patristic text for a beginner.
How to use it: Read selectively for the patristic reading of John’s theology of the Word.
Read online (New Advent (Church Fathers)) In the library - J. B. Lightfoot, ed., The Apostolic Fathers
The earliest Christian writings after the New Testament, including Clement, Ignatius, Polycarp and the Didache.
How to use it: Read selectively to compare the post apostolic writings with the New Testament on church order and teaching.
Read online (Christian Classics Ethereal Library) In the library - Martin Luther, The Small Catechism
Luther’s short teaching on the Commandments, the Creed, the Lord’s Prayer and the sacraments.
How to use it: Compare its summary of faith with Paul’s teaching on justification and faith.
Read online (Christian Classics Ethereal Library) In the library - John Calvin, Institutes of the Christian Religion
The most influential Reformed theology. Book IV is the best statement of the Reformed view of church and sacraments.
How to use it: Read selectively on Paul’s teaching of justification and the Reformed reading of the church.
Read online (Christian Classics Ethereal Library) In the library - Catholic Church, Catechism of the Catholic Church
The authoritative modern summary of Catholic teaching. Read it to understand what Catholics actually claim, in their own words.
How to use it: Read the sections on the apostles, Scripture and the church for the Catholic view.
Read online (Vatican) In the library - J. N. D. Kelly, Early Christian Doctrines
A standard account of how Christian doctrine took shape in the first centuries.
How to use it: Read the early chapters for how the first generations summed up their faith.
Find in a library or bookstore catalog (Open Library) In the library - Timothy (Kallistos) Ware, The Orthodox Church
A widely used introduction to Orthodox history, worship and belief written by an Orthodox bishop.
How to use it: Read the sections on the early church and on Scripture in Orthodox understanding.
Find in a library or bookstore catalog (Open Library) In the library - Flavius Josephus, The Works of Josephus (Whiston translation): Antiquities of the Jews, The Wars of the Jews, Against Apion, Life
The main Jewish historian of the first century. He describes the Temple, the Pharisees, Sadducees and Essenes, Roman rule and the war of 66-70, and he mentions John the Baptist, James and Jesus. Passages on Jesus have disputed wording, so read them with a commentary.
How to use it: Read the passages on the first century in Judea. Compare them with the New Testament and note which are disputed.
Complete works online (Christian Classics Ethereal Library)Antiquities of the Jews (Project Gutenberg) In the library - Philo of Alexandria, The Works of Philo Judaeus (translated by C. D. Yonge)
A Jewish philosopher of Alexandria who read the Torah with Greek philosophy. His use of the Logos and his allegorical method influenced Clement, Origen and later Christian exegesis.
How to use it: Read selectively for a first-century Jewish thinker writing in Greek in Alexandria.
Read online (Christian Classics Ethereal Library) In the library
Passages in the Scripture Study
- Mark 1:15 Jesus proclaims the kingdom of God and calls for repentance and belief.
- Luke 1:3 Luke describes his careful investigation, relevant to the questions of composition and history.
- Matthew 28:19 The commission to the nations, with its Trinitarian wording.
- John 1:14 The Word became flesh, a center of Johannine theology.
- John 15:5 The vine and the branches, an image of abiding in Christ.
- Acts 2:42 The life of the first church in Jerusalem.
- Acts 15:19 James’s judgment at the Jerusalem council about Gentile believers.
- Romans 3:28 Paul on justification by faith. Traditions differ on its full sense.
- Galatians 2:16 Justification not by works of the law but through faith in Christ, within Paul’s dispute over Gentile believers.
- 1 Corinthians 15:3 Paul passes on what he received about Christ’s death and resurrection.
- Philippians 2:6 The Christ hymn, central for early Christology.
- 1 Thessalonians 4:16 Paul on the return of the Lord. Often discussed in debates about the end of the age.
- Ephesians 2:20 The household of God built on the foundation of the apostles and prophets.
- 1 John 4:8 God is love, a central statement of Johannine theology.
- Titus 1:5 Titus is told to appoint elders in every town, a text in discussions of church order.
Independent assignment
A Comparison of Pauline and Johannine Theology
- Purpose
- To compare two major voices of the New Testament carefully from their own texts, identifying shared convictions and real differences without forcing either into agreement or contrast.
- Instructions
- Read Romans and the Gospel of John slowly in full, and read at least one of the shorter Pauline letters and 1 John. Keep a notebook of key ideas, repeated terms and passages that surprised you.
- Write a short profile of each writer: who the traditional author is, what authorship questions scholars raise, the likely setting and audience, and the occasion of the writing. Mark clearly what is certain and what is debated.
- Choose five topics for comparison from this list or others you can justify: Christ, God, salvation, faith, the Spirit, the law and the Old Testament, the church, ethics and love, the future. Define each topic before you compare.
- For each topic, set out what Paul teaches with passages from his letters and what John teaches with passages from the Gospel and letters. Quote or cite exact references and note any differences of vocabulary.
- For each topic, state whether the two agree, differ in emphasis, differ in expression or appear to differ in substance. Give reasons and test your judgment against a counterexample.
- Read at least two scholarly or traditional accounts that compare Paul and John, including at least one Catholic or Orthodox account and one Protestant account. State where they agree with you and where they do not.
- Consider the objection that comparison of two such different kinds of writing, a letter and a gospel, may distort them. State how you answered it in your method.
- Write a section on shared convictions that both writers hold, and a section on meaningful differences. Say why the differences matter for how the New Testament holds together.
- End with a summary of what remains uncertain, and what you would study next.
- Required sources
- At least four of the required readings.
- At least eight of the Scripture passages listed for this course, together with the passages from Paul and John that you choose.
- At least one Catholic or Orthodox source and one Protestant source on the interpretation of Paul or John.
- Length and scope
- About 3,000 to 4,500 words, or ten to fourteen pages, with a comparison table. Keep it in your own notebook or document. Do not send it anywhere.
- Questions to address
- What does each writer say about the same topic, and in what words?
- Is a difference one of emphasis, of expression or of substance?
- How do the occasion and genre of each writing affect what it says?
- How have different traditions explained the relation between Paul and John?
- Where might I be forcing the texts to agree or to disagree?
- Expected output
- A written comparison with two profiles, a table of five topics with references, a section on shared convictions, a section on meaningful differences, a summary of how traditions read the relation, and a note on uncertainties.
- How it will be evaluated
- It profiles each writer accurately and marks debated points.
- It defines each topic before comparing and cites exact passages.
- It separates agreement, differences of emphasis, expression and substance.
- It takes account of genre and occasion.
- It represents more than one tradition fairly.
- It does not force the texts into harmony or into opposition.
- It is clear about what remains uncertain.
- Common mistakes to avoid
- Comparing Paul’s Romans with John’s ideas from memory and not from the text.
- Assuming that a difference of vocabulary is a difference of belief.
- Letting a later doctrinal system decide how each writer must be read.
- Ignoring the difference between a letter written for an occasion and a gospel.
- Treating a disputed question of authorship as settled.
Knowledge check and self-assessment
Who were the Pharisees, Sadducees and Essenes?
They were Jewish movements in the time of Jesus. The Pharisees emphasized the study and practice of the law, including oral tradition, and believed in resurrection. The Sadducees were associated with the priesthood and temple, held to the written Torah and denied resurrection. The Essenes are usually linked with the community at Qumran, which produced the Dead Sea Scrolls, though some details are debated. All of them lived under Roman rule.
What was the political situation in Judea in the first century?
Rome ruled Judea, directly through governors such as Pontius Pilate after AD 6, and indirectly through client rulers such as the Herods in other regions. The temple authorities cooperated with Rome. Taxation, the presence of troops and clashes over religion caused tension and sometimes revolt, culminating in the war of AD 66 to 70 and the destruction of the temple. Jewish hopes for deliverance were shaped by this setting.
What is the synoptic problem?
Matthew, Mark and Luke share much wording and order, yet also differ. The synoptic problem asks how these relationships are best explained. The most widely held solution is that Mark was written first and used by Matthew and Luke, who also drew on a second source of sayings, called Q. Others hold that Matthew came first, or argue against the existence of Q. The question is a literary one and does not decide the truth of the gospels.
What kind of writing is a gospel?
Most scholars today regard the gospels as a form of ancient biography, centered on a person’s deeds, teaching and death, though with the distinct purpose of proclaiming good news. They are not modern biographies, and each shapes its material for a purpose. Luke states an intention to write an orderly account, and John states that his book was written so readers may believe. Authors are named by tradition, though the books themselves are anonymous.
What is the main argument of Paul in Romans, and how do traditions differ in reading it?
Paul argues that all, Jew and Gentile, are under sin, and that God’s righteousness is revealed in Christ and received by faith. Protestants traditionally read this as justification by faith alone, in which believers are counted righteous. Catholics hold that justification involves a real renewal and cooperation with grace, and Orthodox speak more of healing and union with God. Some recent scholars stress that Paul is chiefly concerned with the place of Gentiles in God’s people.
What are the central themes of the Gospel of John?
John presents Jesus as the eternal Word who became flesh, the only Son who reveals the Father. Its themes include light and darkness, life, truth, love, and the Spirit as helper. It reports signs and the I am sayings, including the bread of life and the good shepherd. It calls readers to believe so that they may have life. Many differences in style and content from the other gospels are discussed by scholars.
How did the first churches understand apostolic authority?
An apostle was one sent by Christ as a witness of the resurrection, such as the Twelve and Paul. Their teaching was treated as authoritative for the churches, and their letters were read in worship. After their death, the churches relied on their writings and on teachers and leaders who carried on their teaching. Catholic and Orthodox Christians speak of apostolic succession through bishops, while Protestants stress the apostolic witness in Scripture. The traditions differ on how far the first churches had a settled order.
Name one shared conviction and one difference between Paul and John.
Both hold that Jesus is the Son of God who died and rose, that salvation comes through him by faith, and that believers receive the Spirit and are called to love. They differ in vocabulary and emphasis. Paul uses justification, law and the body of Christ in letters addressing particular disputes, while John speaks of life, light, abiding and the Word in a narrative of Jesus. Whether these are differences of expression or of substance is a matter for study.
Judge your own progress
- When you finish the modules, answer the knowledge questions from memory, without notes. Aim for 70 percent or better; if you score lower, reread the relevant module and try again.
- Write your comparison of Paul and John (the independent assignment). Wait three days, reread it, and mark every claim not supported by a passage or a source.
- Check your work against the evaluation criteria in the assignment. Rate each criterion as strong, adequate or weak and write one sentence on how you would improve each weak one.
- Return to the key ideas of the course after 1 day, 7 days, 30 days and 90 days. At each point, explain the synoptic problem, summarize Paul and John in a paragraph each, and state one shared conviction and one difference.
- You can place the New Testament in its Jewish and Roman setting and explain the main debates about Jesus and the gospels without notes.
- You can summarize Pauline and Johannine theology accurately and describe the main traditional and scholarly readings of each.
- Your comparison is grounded in the texts, separates agreement from difference, and states what remains uncertain.