The beginning of life: abortion, embryo research and reproductive technology

Program / Course 22: Christian Ethics / Lesson 6.2

What you will learn

• Describe the biblical texts and early church teaching bearing on abortion and the unborn.
• State the Catholic, Orthodox and Protestant positions on abortion, embryo research and assisted reproduction.
• Present the strongest arguments of those who oppose and those who support legal access to abortion, each in its own terms.
• Explain the main secular philosophical positions on the moral status of the embryo and fetus.

The big idea

The question of when a human being acquires full moral protection is one of the most contested in ethics. The historic Christian churches have condemned the deliberate taking of unborn human life, with Catholic and Orthodox teaching especially firm and most Protestant bodies opposed in most cases. Some Protestant churches and many individual Christians allow abortion in certain circumstances, citing the life and health of the mother, the claims of women and the difference between early and late pregnancy. Secular views range from full protection of the embryo to protection that grows with development. This lesson states each view as its holders would.

Key terms

Abortion

The ending of a pregnancy so that the embryo or fetus does not survive. Spontaneous abortion is the medical term for miscarriage.

Moral status

The degree to which a being has claims to protection, such as the right not to be killed.

Personhood

Being a person, a bearer of full moral worth. Views differ on when it begins: conception, implantation, brain activity, viability, birth.

Ensoulment

The moment when the human soul is said to be present. Older writers discussed delayed ensoulment based on ancient biology.

Viability

The point at which a fetus can survive outside the womb, with medical help. It varies with technology.

IVF (in vitro fertilization)

A technique in which eggs are fertilized outside the body and the embryos are transferred to the womb or frozen.

Double effect

A principle that permits an act that foresees a bad effect that is not intended, when the act is good in itself, the bad effect is not the means to the good, and the good outweighs the bad.

Background

The Bible does not address abortion by name. Scripture speaks of God’s knowledge and care of the unborn: “Before I formed thee in the belly I knew thee” (Jeremiah 1:5), and the psalmist praises God who formed him in the womb (Psalm 139:13-16). In Luke 1:41, John leaps in Elizabeth’s womb. Exodus 21:22-25 describes a case in which men fighting injure a pregnant woman. Interpreters differ on whether the text distinguishes the value of the fetus from that of the mother, or speaks only of premature birth, and the translation is disputed. Christians draw on the broader commands against killing the innocent and on the biblical picture of the womb as a place of God’s work.

The early church spoke clearly. The Didache, a Christian teaching of the first or second century, forbids killing a child by abortion, and the Epistle of Barnabas and later Fathers, such as Tertullian and Basil, condemned it. Augustine and Aquinas, following Aristotle, thought the soul was infused after an early stage of development, and so distinguished early and later abortions in penalty, but still condemned both as sinful. Later, as embryology advanced, Catholic teaching since the nineteenth century has held that the embryo is to be protected from conception. Modern debate also concerns embryo research, genetic testing, surrogacy and reproductive technologies that did not exist in earlier times.

Step-by-step explanation

Step 1: The Catholic and Orthodox positions

The Catholic Church teaches that human life must be respected and protected absolutely from the moment of conception, and that direct abortion is gravely wrong. Evangelium Vitae (1995) of Pope John Paul II restated this teaching, and the Catechism repeats it. The church allows treatment that may indirectly cause the loss of a fetus, such as removing a cancerous uterus or treating an ectopic pregnancy, under the principle of double effect, where the aim is to save the mother and not to kill the child. It teaches that women facing difficult pregnancies deserve help and compassion, and it urges support for mothers.

The Orthodox Church likewise holds that abortion is sinful, as taking human life. Orthodox canons, such as those of Basil, treated it with severe penance. Some Orthodox statements allow exceptions in extreme cases, such as danger to the mother’s life, with pastoral guidance, and Orthodox pastoral practice stresses repentance and healing for those who have had abortions. The Orthodox Church in America and other bodies have stated their opposition.

Step 2: Protestant positions

Most evangelical, Lutheran (in the Missouri Synod and some other bodies), Reformed and Pentecostal churches teach that abortion is wrong except possibly to save the mother’s life. Many Baptist and evangelical bodies hold the pro-life position firmly and have worked to change law. Some mainline Protestant churches, such as the United Church of Christ, the Evangelical Lutheran Church in America (with qualifications), the Episcopal Church and the Presbyterian Church (USA), have statements that regard abortion as a grave matter but allow it in some circumstances and oppose criminal bans, emphasizing women’s moral agency and conscience. The United Methodist Church has stated that it regards abortion as a tragic conflict of life with life, and supports access in some circumstances. Positions in many denominations are debated internally.

Those who hold the stricter position argue from the image of God, the evidence of life from conception, and the principle that the innocent may not be killed. Those who hold more permissive positions argue from the complexity of hard cases, the woman’s moral agency and wellbeing, the distinction between a potential person and an actual one, and the harm of criminalization. Both groups include thoughtful people who care about women and children.

Step 3: Arguments from the public debate

Those who oppose abortion argue that the embryo is a human being from conception, a distinct organism of the human species with its own development, and that all human beings have a right to life. They argue that no stage of development marks a morally relevant line, since birth, viability and brain function are all stages in one continuous life. They hold that the wrong of abortion is the killing of an innocent human, and that society should protect the vulnerable and support mothers.

Those who support legal access argue that a woman has a right to control her body, that forcing a woman to carry a pregnancy imposes severe burdens, and that the early embryo lacks the features, such as consciousness or sentience, that give moral standing. The philosopher Judith Jarvis Thomson argued, with her violinist case, that even if the fetus is a person, the right to life does not necessarily include a right to use another’s body. Critics reply that the analogy fails because pregnancy involves a parent’s relation to a child. Many people hold intermediate views: that early abortion is less grave than later, that exceptions are needed in cases of rape or fetal anomaly, or that abortion is wrong but should not always be criminalized. In the United States, the Supreme Court’s decision in Dobbs v. Jackson (2022) returned the regulation of abortion to the states.

Step 4: Embryo research and reproductive technology

The Catholic Church, in Donum Vitae (1987) and Dignitas Personae (2008), teaches that embryos deserve respect as persons, so destructive embryo research is wrong, and that IVF is not permitted because it separates procreation from the marital act and often leads to the loss of embryos. It supports treatment of infertility that assists the marital act and expresses sympathy for couples who cannot conceive. The Orthodox Church is cautious about IVF, with practices varying, and generally opposes embryo destruction, though some Orthodox jurisdictions allow IVF for married couples under conditions that do not destroy embryos.

Many Protestants accept IVF as a gift of medicine for married couples, while raising concerns about the freezing and destruction of embryos, about surrogacy and about selection of embryos by genetic traits. Some evangelicals, for instance the Southern Baptist Convention, have addressed these questions in resolutions that urge caution. Regarding stem cell research, Christians distinguish research that destroys embryos, which most conservative Christians oppose, from research using adult or other sources of cells, which many accept. Secular bioethics debates the same questions, with arguments about moral status, the benefits of research and the commodification of reproduction.

1. At what point does the view say a human being has full moral protection, and on what ground?
2. How does it treat the claims of the woman and those of the unborn, and what does it do when they conflict?
3. What does it say about the early church’s teaching and about older discussions of ensoulment?
4. How does it deal with hard cases: rape, fetal anomaly, danger to the mother’s life?
5. What does it say society should do for women and children, whatever the law?
6. How can the view be stated so that someone who disagrees would call it fair?

Examples

Different perspectives

Catholic

The Catholic Church teaches that human life begins at conception and deserves full protection from then on, that direct abortion is gravely wrong in all circumstances, that embryo-destroying research and IVF are not permitted, and that the church must help mothers in need. Catholic voices who dispute some applications, such as in the law, exist, but the doctrine is clear.

Orthodox

Orthodox churches condemn abortion as the taking of life and ask for repentance, while offering pastoral care and not excluding those who have had abortions. They are cautious on reproductive technology and generally reject embryo destruction. Pastoral discretion is stressed in hard cases, such as danger to the mother.

Protestant (pro-life)

Many evangelical, Reformed, Baptist, Pentecostal and confessional Lutheran bodies hold that abortion is the killing of an innocent person and should be restricted by law, with possible exceptions for the mother’s life. They point to Scripture’s view of the unborn, the witness of the early church and the image of God. They also stress care for women and children.

Protestant (permissive or mixed)

Mainline Protestant bodies and some other Christians hold that abortion is a serious moral matter but that women should have access to it in some circumstances, with attention to conscience and hard cases. They point to the moral agency of women, harm from criminalization and the difference between early and late stages. They often affirm a duty to reduce the need for abortion by supporting families.

Secular and scholarly

Secular philosophers hold positions from full protection of the embryo (Don Marquis argues that abortion deprives a fetus of a valuable future), through views that tie status to sentience or personhood (Mary Anne Warren), to the bodily rights arguments of Thomson. Scientists describe development and the timing of features such as the heartbeat and brain activity, which parties interpret differently.

Why it matters

This question touches the deepest convictions about life, women’s wellbeing, the vulnerable and the role of law, and it divides families, churches and nations. Students need to be able to discuss it without caricature, and to see that each side is moved by concern for real human beings. They also need to know what the churches actually teach, since the public image of their positions is often simplified.

Common misunderstandings

Knowledge check

Think it through

1. What do you think would make a person want to understand the other side in this debate?
2. Is it possible to hold that abortion is wrong and also that the law should not always forbid it? What would be the reasoning?
3. What should churches do for women facing a difficult pregnancy, whatever the law says?
4. What difference does it make that Christian teaching has developed since the early church?

Independent assignment

Stating both sides fairly

In your notebook, write 500 to 700 words. Write one paragraph stating the Catholic or Orthodox position as its holders would, one stating a Protestant position that allows abortion in some circumstances as its holders would, and one stating the strongest secular argument on the side you find less persuasive. End with a list of three questions each side would need to answer. Do not state a personal conclusion unless you wish to. Do not send this to anyone or post it anywhere.

Further study

• J. B. Lightfoot, ed., The Apostolic Fathers Read the Didache and the Epistle of Barnabas for the earliest teaching on abortion.
• Thomas Aquinas, Summa Theologiae Read Question 64 on killing and the treatment of the soul in the First Part.
• Catholic Church, Catechism of the Catholic Church Read the section on abortion and on respect for the dignity of persons in reproduction.
• Tertullian, The Prescription Against Heretics Read for Tertullian’s style of argument, to compare with his comments on abortion in his Apology.
• Psalm 139:13 Thou hast covered me in my mother’s womb.
• Jeremiah 1:5 Before I formed thee in the belly I knew thee.
• Exodus 21:22 A disputed text on injury to a pregnant woman.
• Luke 1:41 The babe leaped in her womb.