Course 4 · Foundations
Biblical Studies and Hermeneutics
Learn how the Bible came to be, how its text was handed down, and how Christians and scholars have read it, then practice careful interpretation yourself.
Overview
This course asks two questions in order. First: where did the Bible come from? It follows the formation of the canon (the list of books accepted as Scripture), the Hebrew Bible and its early Greek translation, and the copying of the New Testament by hand over fourteen centuries. Second: how should a reader interpret what is on the page? It introduces the methods used by scholars and the methods used by the church across the centuries.
The course is taught in plain language and assumes no background. Each technical term is defined when it first appears and then used consistently. Where scholars disagree, for example about dates, authorship or how much the historical method can settle, the course describes the main positions rather than choosing one for you. Where Catholic, Orthodox and Protestant Christians differ, as they do on the extent of the Old Testament canon and on the role of tradition, each position is stated in terms its own members would accept.
The method is independent reading and writing. You read short primary sources and standard reference works, practice small exercises on real biblical passages, and test your own habits of reading against the disciplines described. You do all of your work in your own notebook or documents.
By the end you will be able to explain how the canon was formed and how we know what the text says, tell sound exegesis from reading your own ideas into a passage, apply several methods to one text, and write a full exegetical study that is honest about what can be known and what cannot.
Objectives
- Describe the main stages in the formation of the Old Testament and New Testament canons, and state where Catholic, Orthodox and Protestant lists differ.
- Explain what the Septuagint is and why it matters for the Old Testament text and for the New Testament writers.
- Summarize how the New Testament was copied and preserved, and explain what a manuscript, a variant and a family of manuscripts are.
- Apply the basic rules of textual criticism to a simple example of a variant reading.
- Distinguish exegesis from eisegesis and give an example of each.
- Explain the aims, tools and limits of historical-critical methods and of literary and canonical readings.
- Describe typology and allegorical interpretation as used by early Christian writers, and state how later traditions judged them.
- Identify the genre, setting, authorship question and audience of a passage and show how each affects its meaning.
- Compare the major Christian approaches to interpretation, including the fourfold sense, the grammatical and historical method, and theological interpretation.
- Write a scholarly exegesis of a chosen passage that uses several methods and states its own limits.
Course outline
Module 1 How the Canon Formed
Learn what a canon is, how the Old and New Testament lists took shape, and where the traditions still differ.
Topics
- Formation and development of the biblical canon
Lessons
Module 2 The Hebrew Bible and the Septuagint
Meet the Old Testament in Hebrew and in its early Greek translation, and see why both matter.
Topics
- Hebrew Bible and Septuagint
Lessons
Module 3 Transmission of the New Testament Text
Follow the New Testament from first copies to printed editions and learn how scholars weigh variant readings.
Topics
- New Testament textual transmission
- Manuscript traditions
- Textual criticism
Lessons
Module 4 Reading Responsibly: Exegesis and Method
Separate drawing meaning out of a text from reading meaning into it, and learn the standard historical and literary methods.
Topics
- Exegesis versus eisegesis
- Historical-critical methodology
- Literary and canonical interpretation
Lessons
Module 5 Meaning Beyond the Surface: Typology, Allegory and Genre
Study how early Christians read the Old Testament as pointing to Christ, and how genre, setting, authorship and audience shape any reading.
Topics
- Typology and allegorical interpretation
- Genre, historical setting, authorship and intended audience
Lessons
Module 6 Christian Approaches to Interpretation
Compare how the great Christian traditions have read Scripture, and how scholarship and theology can inform each other.
Topics
- Major Christian approaches to biblical interpretation
- Historical scholarship and theological interpretation
Lessons
Module 7 Writing an Exegesis
Put the methods together in a step by step process for studying one passage and presenting it.
Topics
- Exegesis versus eisegesis
- Genre, historical setting, authorship and intended audience
Lessons
Suggested schedule
| When | Work |
|---|---|
| Week 1 | Module 1: How the Canon Formed |
| Week 2 | Module 2: The Hebrew Bible and the Septuagint |
| Week 3 | Module 3: Transmission of the New Testament Text |
| Week 4 | Module 4: Reading Responsibly: Exegesis and Method |
| Week 5 | Module 5: Meaning Beyond the Surface: Typology, Allegory and Genre |
| Week 6 | Module 6: Christian Approaches to Interpretation |
| Week 7 | Module 7: Writing an Exegesis |
| Week 8 | Independent assignment and self-assessment |
Readings
Required
- Gordon D. Fee and Douglas Stuart, How to Read the Bible for All Its Worth
A widely used guide to reading each biblical genre well. Excellent for Course 1.
How to use it: Read the opening chapters on exegesis and the chapters on the genres you meet in your assignment passage. Use it as a working guide while you write.
Find in a library or bookstore catalog (Open Library) In the library - Bruce M. Metzger, The Canon of the New Testament
A standard history of how the New Testament canon was formed.
How to use it: Read selectively for the New Testament canon: the earliest lists, the role of church use, and the debates over disputed books.
Find in a library or bookstore catalog (Open Library) In the library - Bruce M. Metzger and Bart D. Ehrman, The Text of the New Testament: Its Transmission, Corruption, and Restoration
The standard introduction to New Testament textual criticism, written by one believer and one skeptic.
How to use it: Read the chapters on manuscripts and on the principles of textual criticism. Work the examples with a notebook beside you.
Find in a library or bookstore catalog (Open Library) In the library - Irenaeus of Lyon, Against Heresies
The first great defense of apostolic teaching against Gnostic rivals. Essential for the question of how Scripture and tradition relate.
How to use it: Read Book 3, chapters 1 to 4, on the four gospels and the apostolic teaching, as an early example of how the church argued about reading Scripture.
Read online (New Advent (Church Fathers)) In the library - Origen, On First Principles (De Principiis)
The first systematic Christian theology, with a long discussion of how to interpret Scripture. Some of its ideas were later rejected.
How to use it: Read the preface and Book 4 on the interpretation of Scripture to meet the allegorical method in its own words.
Read online (New Advent (Church Fathers)) In the library - Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy, Hermeneutics
The history of theories of interpretation, from Scripture to modern philosophy.
How to use it: Read for the history of the discipline and for the main modern debates about meaning and the reader.
Read online (Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy) In the library
Recommended
- F. F. Bruce, The New Testament Documents: Are They Reliable?
A short classic defense of the historical reliability of the New Testament. Read it with a critical eye and compare it with newer work.
How to use it: A traditional introduction to the early manuscript evidence. Compare its confidence with the more cautious tone of Metzger and Ehrman.
Find in a library or bookstore catalog (Open Library) In the library - Richard Bauckham, Jesus and the Eyewitnesses
Argues that the Gospels rest on eyewitness testimony. Important and debated.
How to use it: A current argument about the gospels and eyewitness testimony. Read selectively and note where critics disagree.
Find in a library or bookstore catalog (Open Library) In the library - Augustine of Hippo, The City of God
A huge answer to the charge that Christianity caused Rome’s fall. It shapes Western thought on history, politics and the church.
How to use it: Read selectively to see how Augustine reads Old Testament history in light of Christ.
Read online (New Advent (Church Fathers)) In the library - Tertullian, The Prescription Against Heretics
A sharp early argument about who may interpret Scripture and by what authority. Read it alongside Irenaeus.
How to use it: Compare its argument about who may rightly interpret Scripture with that of Irenaeus.
Read online (New Advent (Church Fathers)) In the library - John Calvin, Institutes of the Christian Religion
The most influential Reformed theology. Book IV is the best statement of the Reformed view of church and sacraments.
How to use it: Read Book 1, chapters 6 to 9, for a Reformed account of Scripture and its authority.
Read online (Christian Classics Ethereal Library) In the library - Council of Trent (1545-1563), Canons and Decrees of the Council of Trent
The Catholic response to the Reformation on Scripture, justification and the sacraments. Read it as a Catholic statement of its own position.
How to use it: Read the decree on the canonical Scriptures to see the Catholic statement of the canon in its own words.
Read the canons and decrees (Hanover College) In the library - Alister E. McGrath, Christian Theology: An Introduction
A clear textbook that surveys doctrine and its history across traditions.
How to use it: Read the sections on Scripture and tradition for a fair overview of the three major traditions.
Find in a library or bookstore catalog (Open Library) In the library
Passages in the Scripture Study
- Luke 24:44 Jesus speaks of the Law of Moses, the Prophets and the Psalms, an early reference to a threefold division of the Hebrew Scriptures.
- 2 Timothy 3:16 Scripture is described as inspired by God and useful for teaching. Traditions differ on how they define inspiration and authority.
- 2 Peter 3:16 Paul’s letters are placed beside the other Scriptures, an early sign that apostolic writings were being treated as authoritative.
- Luke 24:27 Jesus interprets the Scriptures concerning himself, a source for Christ centered reading.
- Galatians 4:24 Paul speaks of an allegory using Hagar and Sarah. Used in debates about allegorical reading.
- 1 Corinthians 10:6 Events of the exodus are called examples for later believers, a basis for typology.
- Romans 5:14 Adam is called a type of the one who was to come.
- Hebrews 8:5 The tabernacle is described as a copy and shadow of heavenly things.
- Matthew 2:15 Matthew applies Hosea 11:1 to Jesus. A test case for how the New Testament uses the Old.
- Acts 8:30 Philip asks the Ethiopian official if he understands what he reads, a scene about guided reading.
- Acts 17:11 The Bereans examine the Scriptures daily to see whether the teaching is so.
- Luke 1:1 Luke’s preface describes the use of earlier accounts and careful investigation, relevant to questions of sources and composition.
- John 20:31 The stated purpose of the Gospel of John, an example of an author’s own account of purpose and audience.
- Nehemiah 8:8 The Law is read aloud and explained so that the people understand, an early picture of public interpretation.
Independent assignment
A Scholarly Exegesis of a Biblical Passage
- Purpose
- To practice interpreting one passage of Scripture with several methods, in order, and to report honestly what each method contributes and where it reaches its limit.
- Instructions
- Choose a passage of 5 to 20 verses from a narrative, a prophet, a psalm, a gospel or a letter. Write one sentence saying why you chose it and one sentence stating the question you want to answer.
- Compare the passage in at least three English translations. Note every difference of wording that changes the sense, and check a footnote or critical apparatus for any variant reading. State how you would weigh the variant using the rules of textual criticism.
- Describe the literary context: the passage’s place in its book, its structure, its key words and repeated terms, and its genre. Say how the genre affects how it should be read.
- Describe the historical context: the likely setting, the author and audience as far as they can be known, and the points on which scholars disagree. Mark clearly what is well supported and what is uncertain.
- Apply one historical-critical method (for example source, form or redaction criticism) and explain what it adds and what it cannot settle.
- Describe the canonical setting. Trace connections to other parts of Scripture, including any typological reading used by the New Testament or the fathers, and say how you judge the legitimacy of that reading.
- Report how at least two Christian traditions have read the passage, using their own sources where possible. Include one Catholic or Orthodox reading and one Protestant reading.
- Consult at least three scholarly commentaries or reference works only after drafting your own observations. Note where they confirm, correct or challenge your draft.
- Write your exegesis in your own words. State your conclusion, the strongest objection to it and your reply, and what remains uncertain.
- Review the finished work for eisegesis. Mark every claim and label it as drawn from the text, drawn from context, or brought by you.
- Required sources
- At least four of the required readings.
- At least five of the Scripture passages listed for this course, or the passage you chose together with the cross references you use.
- At least three English translations of the passage and at least three commentaries or scholarly reference works of your choice.
- Length and scope
- About 3,000 to 4,500 words, or ten to fourteen pages. Keep it in your own notebook or document. Do not send it anywhere.
- Questions to address
- What does the passage say, and is there any doubt about the wording?
- What kind of writing is it, and what did the first audience expect from that kind of writing?
- What do the different methods show that the others miss?
- How have Catholic, Orthodox and Protestant readers understood it, and where do they agree?
- What have I assumed that the text does not say?
- Expected output
- A structured exegesis in your own words with a translation comparison, a context section, a section for each method used, a section on traditions of reading, a conclusion and a list of what remains uncertain.
- How it will be evaluated
- It identifies variants and translation differences accurately.
- It uses each method for what the method can actually do, and names its limits.
- It separates what the text says from what scholars infer and from what the writer brings.
- It represents more than one Christian tradition fairly, in terms its members would recognize.
- It cites sources correctly and does not quote or rely on a commentary without comment.
- It reaches a clear conclusion while stating the strongest objection to it.
- It shows evidence of revision.
- Common mistakes to avoid
- Starting with a commentary and letting it set the conclusion.
- Treating one translation as the original text.
- Using a method as though it could prove the whole meaning, or rejecting a method without understanding it.
- Reading later doctrine back into the passage without saying so.
- Quoting word studies from a lexicon without checking how the word is used in context.
Knowledge check and self-assessment
What is a biblical canon, and how did the New Testament canon take shape?
A canon is the list of books accepted as Scripture and as a rule for faith. The New Testament canon developed over several centuries. Paul’s letters and the four gospels were widely read in the second century. Lists from the fourth century, such as Athanasius’s Easter letter of 367, give the 27 books now used by most Christians. Church use, apostolic connection and agreement with the faith received were among the criteria. A few books, such as Hebrews and Revelation, were debated for a time.
How do the Catholic, Orthodox and Protestant Old Testaments differ?
Protestants usually follow the Hebrew Bible’s list of 39 books. Catholics also receive seven additional books, including Tobit, Judith, Wisdom, Sirach, Baruch and 1 and 2 Maccabees, along with additions to Esther and Daniel, calling them deuterocanonical. Orthodox churches receive these and some further books, with some variation among churches. The difference reflects different histories: the Septuagint was widely used by early Christians, while Protestant reformers chose the Hebrew list.
What is the Septuagint, and why does it matter?
The Septuagint is the ancient Greek translation of the Hebrew Scriptures, begun in Alexandria about the third century BC and completed over time. Greek speaking Jews and early Christians used it widely, and many Old Testament quotations in the New Testament follow its wording. It sometimes differs from the later Hebrew Masoretic Text, so it is a witness to older forms of the text and to early interpretation.
What is a textual variant, and why are there so many in the New Testament?
A variant is a place where manuscripts differ in wording. There are many because the New Testament was copied by hand for about fourteen centuries and thousands of manuscripts survive. Most variants are small matters of spelling or word order, and few affect the meaning of a passage. The large number of manuscripts is what allows scholars to compare them and, in most cases, to recover the earlier reading with reasonable confidence.
State two common principles that scholars use to choose between variant readings.
One principle is that the reading that best explains the origin of the others is likely original. Another is that the harder reading is often original, since scribes tended to smooth difficult wording. Scholars also prefer the shorter reading in many cases, weigh the age and quality of manuscripts, and consider geographic spread. No rule is applied mechanically, and scholars sometimes disagree on a given case.
What is the difference between exegesis and eisegesis?
Exegesis means drawing out of a text what it says, using attention to wording, context, genre and setting. Eisegesis means reading into a text ideas that come from the reader rather than from the passage. For example, treating a poetic image as a technical description, or applying a verse to a modern situation without asking what it meant to its first hearers, may be eisegesis. The distinction is a matter of method, not a claim that anyone can read without assumptions.
How do typology and allegory differ as ways of reading?
Typology links real persons, events or institutions in the Old Testament to their fulfilment in Christ or the church, such as Adam, the exodus or the Passover lamb. It keeps the historical sense. Allegory finds a hidden or symbolic meaning behind the words, and may set aside the plain historical sense. Origen made wide use of allegory, while writers of the school of Antioch preferred a more historical reading. Both appear in the fathers, and later traditions judged their limits differently.
What can historical-critical methods contribute to interpretation, and what are their limits?
They help readers ask about sources, setting, authorship, date and how a text was composed, and they guard against reading the text anachronistically. Their limits are that conclusions often rest on inference and are debated, and that the methods alone do not ask whether the text is true or what it means for faith. Many Christian scholars use them alongside literary, canonical and theological readings, while some traditions regard them with caution.
Judge your own progress
- When you finish the modules, answer the knowledge questions from memory, without notes. Aim for 70 percent or better; if you score lower, reread the relevant module and try again.
- Write your exegesis (the independent assignment). Wait three days, reread it, and mark every claim that comes from the text, from context, or from your own assumptions.
- Check your work against the evaluation criteria in the assignment. Rate each criterion as strong, adequate or weak and write one sentence on how you would improve each weak one.
- Return to the key ideas of the course after 1 day, 7 days, 30 days and 90 days. At each point, explain aloud how the canon was formed, how a variant is judged, and the difference between exegesis and eisegesis.
- You can explain the formation of the canon and the transmission of the text without notes.
- You can apply several methods to one passage and say what each can and cannot show.
- Your exegesis separates evidence, inference and assumption, and states uncertainty plainly.