Course 6 · Foundations
Old Testament Theology and History
Study the Old Testament as history and as theology, following the covenants, the monarchy, the prophets, the exile and the messianic hope through to Second Temple Judaism.
Overview
This course reads the Old Testament in its own setting before asking what Christians have made of it. It begins with the world around ancient Israel: Egypt, Mesopotamia, Canaan and the empires that ruled them. It then follows the story the books tell, from creation and the patriarchs through Sinai, the monarchy, the prophets, the exile and the return, and ends with the Judaism of the Second Temple period, which formed the world of the New Testament.
Two threads run through the whole course. The first is covenant: the bond between God and a people, set out in the promises to Abraham, the law at Sinai, the promise to David, and the hope of renewal. The second is the question of how the different kinds of Old Testament writing, including law, narrative, prophecy, wisdom and apocalyptic, each contribute to a single theological picture, and how Jews and Christians have read them differently.
Scholars disagree about dates, authorship, the relation of the biblical accounts to other ancient evidence, and the development of Israelite religion. The course describes these debates plainly, marks what is well supported and what is not, and avoids treating any one position as the settled view. Jewish, Catholic, Orthodox and Protestant readings are described in terms their own members would accept.
By the end you will be able to place each part of the Old Testament in its likely historical and literary setting, explain the main theological ideas of each, trace the covenants as a single developing story and write a framework of your own that shows this development with care for evidence.
Objectives
- Describe the major civilizations of the ancient Near East and explain how they help in reading the Old Testament.
- Compare the biblical creation accounts with other ancient accounts of origins and explain what each claims about God and the world.
- Define covenant and distinguish the covenants with Noah, Abraham, Moses, David and the promised new covenant.
- Summarize the structure and main themes of the Torah and explain its place in Israelite and Jewish life.
- Narrate the main events of the Israelite monarchy and explain why the books of Samuel and Kings are shaped as they are.
- Explain the role of the prophets and describe the exile and the restoration and their effect on Jewish identity and thought.
- Describe the main groups, institutions and beliefs of Second Temple Judaism.
- Explain the purposes of wisdom and apocalyptic writing and how they differ from prophecy.
- Trace the development of messianic expectation and state fairly how Jews and Christians read these texts.
- Construct a written framework showing the development of covenant across the Old Testament.
Course outline
Module 1 Israel in the Ancient Near East
Place ancient Israel among its neighbors and see how the Bible’s opening chapters speak to the ideas of that world.
Topics
- Ancient Near Eastern civilizations
- Creation narratives and ancient cosmology
Lessons
Module 2 Covenant: Abraham and Moses
Define covenant, follow the promise to Abraham and study the covenant at Sinai and the Torah that came with it.
Topics
- Covenant theology
- Abrahamic covenant
- Mosaic covenant and Torah
Lessons
Module 3 Kingship in Israel
Follow the rise of the monarchy, the promise to David, and the history told in Samuel and Kings.
Topics
- Israelite monarchy
Lessons
Module 4 The Prophets, Exile and Restoration
Study what prophets were, what they said, and how the exile and return changed Israel’s understanding of God and itself.
Topics
- Prophetic literature
- Exile and restoration
Lessons
Module 5 Wisdom and Apocalyptic Writing
Read the books that reflect on life and on the end of history, and see how they differ from law and prophecy.
Topics
- Wisdom literature
- Apocalyptic literature
Lessons
Module 6 Second Temple Judaism and the Development of Jewish Thought
Describe the Judaism of the centuries between the return and the time of Jesus and how its ideas developed.
Topics
- Second Temple Judaism
- Development of Jewish religious thought
Lessons
Module 7 Messianic Expectation and the Shape of the Covenants
Trace the hope of an anointed king and a renewed covenant, and gather the course into a single account of covenant development.
Topics
- Old Testament messianic expectations
- Covenant theology
Lessons
Suggested schedule
| When | Work |
|---|---|
| Week 1 | Module 1: Israel in the Ancient Near East |
| Week 2 | Module 2: Covenant: Abraham and Moses |
| Week 3 | Module 3: Kingship in Israel |
| Week 4 | Module 4: The Prophets, Exile and Restoration |
| Week 5 | Module 5: Wisdom and Apocalyptic Writing |
| Week 6 | Module 6: Second Temple Judaism and the Development of Jewish Thought |
| Week 7 | Module 7: Messianic Expectation and the Shape of the Covenants |
| Week 8 | Independent assignment and self-assessment |
Readings
Required
- Gordon D. Fee and Douglas Stuart, How to Read the Bible for All Its Worth
A widely used guide to reading each biblical genre well. Excellent for Course 1.
How to use it: Read the chapters on the Old Testament narratives, the law, the prophets, the psalms and wisdom to learn how each kind of writing is read.
Find in a library or bookstore catalog (Open Library) In the library - Augustine of Hippo, The City of God
A huge answer to the charge that Christianity caused Rome’s fall. It shapes Western thought on history, politics and the church.
How to use it: Read selectively for Augustine’s reading of Old Testament history and of the two cities, especially his treatment of Abraham, David and the prophets.
Read online (New Advent (Church Fathers)) In the library - Irenaeus of Lyon, Against Heresies
The first great defense of apostolic teaching against Gnostic rivals. Essential for the question of how Scripture and tradition relate.
How to use it: Read selectively for Irenaeus’s account of the covenants as stages in one divine plan.
Read online (New Advent (Church Fathers)) In the library - John Calvin, Institutes of the Christian Religion
The most influential Reformed theology. Book IV is the best statement of the Reformed view of church and sacraments.
How to use it: Read Book 2, chapters 10 and 11, for the Reformed account of the unity and difference of the Old and New Testaments.
Read online (Christian Classics Ethereal Library) In the library - Catholic Church, Catechism of the Catholic Church
The authoritative modern summary of Catholic teaching. Read it to understand what Catholics actually claim, in their own words.
How to use it: Read the sections on the Old Testament and on the law and the promises for the Catholic account in its own words.
Read online (Vatican) In the library - Westminster Assembly, The Westminster Confession of Faith
The classic confession of English-speaking Reformed and Presbyterian Protestantism. It is printed in Schaff’s volume of Protestant creeds; use the contents list to find it.
How to use it: Read the chapters on God’s covenant and on the law for the Reformed covenant theology that gave the term its place in Protestant thought.
Creeds of Christendom, vol. 3 (Christian Classics Ethereal Library) In the library
Recommended
- Origen, On First Principles (De Principiis)
The first systematic Christian theology, with a long discussion of how to interpret Scripture. Some of its ideas were later rejected.
How to use it: Read selectively for an early view of how the Old Testament points to Christ.
Read online (New Advent (Church Fathers)) In the library - Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy, Religion and Science
A careful survey of how science and religion have been related.
How to use it: Read the sections on the history of the debate over origins and Scripture.
Read online (Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy) In the library - Bruce M. Metzger, The Canon of the New Testament
A standard history of how the New Testament canon was formed.
How to use it: Read the opening chapters on the Old Testament canon and the books received by different churches.
Find in a library or bookstore catalog (Open Library) In the library - John of Damascus, An Exposition of the Orthodox Faith
The eighth-century summary of Eastern doctrine. A standard way into how Orthodox theology organizes the faith.
How to use it: Read selectively for the Orthodox account of the Old Testament in the life of the church.
Read online (New Advent (Church Fathers)) In the library - Charles Hodge, Systematic Theology
A nineteenth-century Reformed systematic theology in three volumes, freely available.
How to use it: Read selectively on covenants for the American Reformed tradition.
Volume 1 (Christian Classics Ethereal Library) In the library - N. T. Wright, The Resurrection of the Son of God
A major scholarly argument about what the first Christians meant by resurrection and why they believed it happened. Long and demanding.
How to use it: Read the chapters on Second Temple Jewish ideas of afterlife and resurrection.
Find in a library or bookstore catalog (Open Library) In the library - Thomas Aquinas, Summa Theologiae
The great medieval summary of Christian theology. It is long; use the questions assigned in each course rather than reading straight through.
How to use it: Read the treatise on the Old Law in the Prima Secundae (questions 98 to 105) for a medieval Catholic analysis of the law’s purpose.
Read online (New Advent) In the library - Qumran community and related Jewish writers, The Dead Sea Scrolls
The oldest surviving manuscripts of books of the Hebrew Bible, along with community rules, commentaries and other writings from before and around the time of Jesus. The official digital library shows high resolution images of the fragments with background articles in English.
How to use it: Browse the digital library for the biblical scrolls and see how they bear on the text of the Old Testament.
Browse the scrolls online (Israel Antiquities Authority) In the library
Passages in the Scripture Study
- Genesis 1:1 The opening of the biblical account of creation. Compare it with other ancient accounts.
- Genesis 9:11 God’s covenant with Noah and every living creature.
- Genesis 12:2 The promise to Abraham of a great nation and a blessing to all families of the earth.
- Genesis 15:6 Abraham believes God, and it is counted to him as righteousness.
- Exodus 19:5 At Sinai, Israel is called God’s treasured possession if it keeps the covenant.
- Deuteronomy 6:4 The Shema, a central confession of Israel’s faith.
- 2 Samuel 7:16 The promise to David of a house and a throne that will endure.
- Isaiah 6:8 Isaiah’s call and commission.
- Jeremiah 31:31 The promise of a new covenant.
- Ezekiel 37:14 The vision of dry bones, a promise of restoration for Israel.
- Psalm 2:7 A royal psalm in which the king is called God’s son.
- Job 38:4 God’s answer to Job out of the whirlwind.
- Daniel 7:13 The vision of one like a son of man.
- Micah 5:2 A promised ruler from Bethlehem.
- Isaiah 53:5 The suffering servant. Jewish and Christian readings differ on who the servant is.
- Ezra 1:2 Cyrus’s decree allowing the return from exile.
Independent assignment
A Framework for the Development of Covenant in the Old Testament
- Purpose
- To construct a written account that shows how covenant develops across the Old Testament, with attention to history, to each covenant’s terms, and to the places where interpreters disagree.
- Instructions
- Make a timeline of the main periods from the patriarchs to the Second Temple period. For each date, mark whether it is firmly supported, approximate or disputed.
- For each covenant (Noah, Abraham, Moses at Sinai, Deuteronomy’s renewal, David, and the promised new covenant), write a one page summary: who the parties are, what is promised, what is required, what sign marks it and whether it is conditional or unconditional in the text.
- Compare the Mosaic covenant with at least one ancient Near Eastern treaty or law form described in your sources, and state what the comparison does and does not show.
- Write a section on how the prophets use covenant language to accuse Israel, to warn of judgment and to promise restoration. Use at least three prophets.
- Write a section on the exile and the return: what was lost, what the exiles reconsidered, and how covenant was reinterpreted in the Second Temple period.
- Write a section on messianic expectation as part of covenant development. State how the Jewish, Catholic, Orthodox and Protestant traditions read at least two key texts.
- State the main views on how the covenants relate: for example continuity as one covenant of grace in Reformed thought, distinct dispensations in some Protestant traditions, and the Catholic and Orthodox emphasis on one divine plan. Describe each fairly and say which you find best supported by the texts, with reasons.
- Include a table or diagram that shows the covenants in order, their parties, promises, requirements and signs, and the texts that support each entry.
- Close with a short statement of what remains uncertain or debated, and what you would study next.
- Required sources
- At least four of the required readings.
- At least eight of the Scripture passages listed for this course.
- At least one Jewish source or scholarly account of Jewish interpretation, and at least one Catholic, one Orthodox and one Protestant source on the covenants.
- Length and scope
- About 3,500 to 5,000 words, or twelve to sixteen pages, with a table or diagram. Keep it in your own notebook or document. Do not send it anywhere.
- Questions to address
- What does each covenant promise, and what does each require?
- What continuity and what change do I find from one covenant to the next?
- How do the prophets use covenant ideas when they judge and when they console?
- How do Jewish and Christian readers differ over what is fulfilled and what is awaited?
- Where do the texts and the evidence leave real uncertainty?
- Expected output
- A written framework with a timeline, a summary of each covenant, sections on the prophets, exile and messianic hope, a statement of the main views on how the covenants relate, a table or diagram, and a note on uncertainties.
- How it will be evaluated
- It places events in a timeline and marks which dates are certain and which are debated.
- It summarizes each covenant accurately from the biblical text.
- It uses ancient Near Eastern comparisons without overstating them.
- It represents Jewish, Catholic, Orthodox and Protestant readings fairly.
- It shows development across the Old Testament and does not merely list covenants.
- It is clear about what is certain, probable and debated.
- It cites its sources and Scripture precisely.
- Common mistakes to avoid
- Reading the New Testament’s view of the covenants back into every Old Testament text without saying so.
- Treating a debated date or source theory as settled.
- Describing Jewish interpretation only through Christian sources.
- Writing a list of covenants with no account of how they relate.
- Overstating the parallels between biblical covenants and ancient treaties.
Knowledge check and self-assessment
What is a covenant, and how does it differ from a simple promise?
A covenant is a binding relationship between parties, established with solemn commitments and often marked by a sign, a ritual or an oath. In the Old Testament, God enters covenants with Noah, Abraham, Israel at Sinai and David. A covenant involves obligations as well as promises, and it creates an ongoing relationship, not a single act. Some covenants are described as depending on the people’s faithfulness, while others rest chiefly on God’s promise.
What did God promise Abraham, and where is the promise told?
In Genesis 12 God promises Abraham a land, many descendants and a blessing for all the families of the earth. Genesis 15 describes a covenant ceremony and Abraham’s faith, and Genesis 17 adds circumcision as the sign of the covenant. Jews, Christians and Muslims all claim Abraham as an ancestor in different ways, and Paul in the New Testament reads the promise as reaching Gentiles through faith.
What is the Torah, and what does it contain?
The Torah is the first five books of the Bible: Genesis, Exodus, Leviticus, Numbers and Deuteronomy. Torah means teaching or instruction, not only law. It contains narrative from creation to the edge of the promised land and the laws given at Sinai, including moral commands, rules for worship and civil provisions. Tradition names Moses as its author, and scholars debate how and when it reached its present form.
How did the monarchy begin, and what was the promise to David?
After the period of the judges, the tribes asked for a king, and Samuel anointed Saul, then David. David took Jerusalem and made it his capital. In 2 Samuel 7 God promises David that his house and throne will endure forever through his offspring. This promise shaped later hope for an anointed king in David’s line and is the root of the word messiah in Israel’s tradition.
What did the prophets do, and was their work mainly to predict the future?
Prophets spoke for God to Israel and its kings. They called people to justice and loyalty to the covenant, warned of judgment and promised restoration. They sometimes spoke about the future, but much of their message concerned their own time. Reading them mainly as prediction misses their social and moral concern. Christians also read many prophecies as pointing to Christ, while Jewish tradition reads them differently.
Why was the exile so significant for Israel?
In 586 BC the Babylonians destroyed Jerusalem and its temple and took many leaders into exile. This undid the land, the temple and the Davidic kingdom, which the covenant seemed to guarantee. It prompted deep reflection on sin and on God’s presence, shaped the collection and editing of Scripture, and led to hopes of return and a new covenant. Cyrus of Persia permitted a return in the 530s BC.
How do wisdom and apocalyptic writing differ from prophecy?
Wisdom books such as Proverbs, Job and Ecclesiastes reflect on how to live well and on the puzzles of suffering and meaning, using observation, proverb and argument more than a direct word from God. Apocalyptic writing, as in Daniel, uses visions and symbols to say that God will end the rule of evil, and it often arose among people under persecution. Both depend on the covenant faith, but they speak in different ways than the prophets.
How do Jews and Christians read messianic texts differently?
Jewish tradition has understood the messiah as a future anointed king of David’s line who will restore Israel and bring peace, and has read texts such as Isaiah 53 variously, often as referring to Israel. Christians read many of the same texts as fulfilled in Jesus, who is understood as a suffering and risen king. Both sides begin from the same Scriptures, and a fair account states each in terms its own readers would accept.
Judge your own progress
- When you finish the modules, answer the knowledge questions from memory, without notes. Aim for 70 percent or better; if you score lower, reread the relevant module and try again.
- Write your covenant framework (the independent assignment). Wait three days, reread it, and mark every date or claim that you did not check against a source.
- Check your work against the evaluation criteria in the assignment. Rate each criterion as strong, adequate or weak and write one sentence on how you would improve each weak one.
- Return to the key ideas of the course after 1 day, 7 days, 30 days and 90 days. At each point, name the covenants in order with their promises and signs, and explain how Jews and Christians read one messianic text.
- You can narrate the main periods of Old Testament history and name the main covenants with their terms.
- You can explain the role of prophecy, wisdom and apocalyptic writing and describe their historical settings.
- Your framework shows development, distinguishes certain from debated claims, and treats Jewish and Christian readings fairly.