Program / Course 11: Church, Sacraments, and Authority / Lesson 6.1
What you will learn
- Trace the biblical background of baptism from John the Baptist to the apostolic church.
- Summarize the main New Testament meanings of baptism: cleansing, union with Christ, new birth and entry into the church.
- Describe what the Didache, Justin and Tertullian say about baptism.
- Compare how the traditions read the evidence.
The big idea
Baptism is the rite of washing in water by which a person is received into the Christian community. The New Testament links it with repentance, forgiveness of sins, the gift of the Spirit, union with Christ’s death and resurrection, and membership in his body. Early writers describe the rite, its preparation and its effects. All three major traditions practice baptism in the name of the Father, Son and Holy Spirit. They differ on whether it is a means of grace in itself, on who may receive it, and on how it is done.
Key terms
- Baptism
- From the Greek baptizo, meaning to dip or immerse. The Christian rite of washing with water in the name of the Trinity.
- Catechumen
- A person being taught the faith in preparation for baptism.
- Immersion
- Baptism by going under the water.
- Affusion
- Baptism by pouring water over the head.
- Regeneration
- New birth. A term used in John 3 and Titus 3:5 and often linked with baptism.
- Household baptism
- The New Testament accounts of baptizing a whole household, as in Acts 16.
- Didache
- An early Christian handbook of teaching and worship, of uncertain date, often placed in the first or early second century.
Background
Washing for purification was part of Jewish life. The Old Testament prescribes ritual washings, and prophets spoke of God cleansing his people with water (Ezekiel 36:25). John the Baptist preached a baptism of repentance for the forgiveness of sins (Mark 1:4). Jesus was baptized by John (Mark 1:9-11), and the Gospel of John says that his disciples baptized as well (John 3:22; 4:1-2). After the resurrection, Jesus told his followers to make disciples of all nations and baptize them in the name of the Father, the Son and the Holy Spirit (Matthew 28:19).
Whether Jewish proselyte baptism existed in the first century and influenced John is debated by historians. The community at Qumran practiced frequent ritual washings. Scholars generally agree that Christian baptism had Jewish roots and also new meaning from the death and resurrection of Jesus.
Step-by-step explanation
Step 1: Baptism in the Acts of the Apostles
On the day of Pentecost, Peter told the crowd to repent and be baptized in the name of Jesus Christ for the forgiveness of sins, and promised the gift of the Holy Spirit (Acts 2:38). About three thousand were baptized (Acts 2:41). The Ethiopian official is baptized by Philip (Acts 8:36-38), Saul by Ananias (Acts 9:18; 22:16), and Cornelius and his household after the Spirit falls on them (Acts 10:44-48). Lydia and her household are baptized (Acts 16:15), as is the jailer and all his family (Acts 16:33). Paul says he baptized the household of Stephanas (1 Corinthians 1:16).
The order of faith, baptism and the Spirit varies. In Samaria the Spirit is given after baptism, when Peter and John come (Acts 8:14-17). With Cornelius the Spirit comes before baptism. Christians differ on what these variations mean. Some see a fixed pattern in which baptism and the Spirit belong together. Others see freedom in the way God acts.
Step 2: Baptism in the letters and John
Paul writes that those baptized into Christ Jesus were baptized into his death, buried with him by baptism, so that they might walk in newness of life (Romans 6:3-4). He speaks of being baptized into one body (1 Corinthians 12:13) and of putting on Christ (Galatians 3:27). Colossians 2:12 speaks of being buried with Christ in baptism and raised through faith. Titus 3:5 speaks of the washing of regeneration and renewing of the Holy Spirit.
In John 3:5, Jesus tells Nicodemus that one must be born of water and the Spirit. Interpreters differ on whether water refers to baptism, to natural birth or to the cleansing of the Spirit. First Peter 3:21 says baptism now saves, not as the removal of dirt from the body but as the appeal of a good conscience to God through the resurrection of Jesus Christ. Catholic, Orthodox and many Lutheran and Anglican writers see in these texts a real work of God in baptism, and many Baptist and other Protestant writers read them as speaking of faith expressed in baptism.
Step 3: The Didache, Justin and Tertullian
The Didache (chapter 7) instructs that baptism is to be in the name of the Father, Son and Holy Spirit, preferably in running water. If there is none, other water may be used, cold or warm, and if there is not enough for immersion, water may be poured three times on the head. Before baptism, the one baptizing and the one baptized should fast, with others if possible. The text shows early diversity in mode.
Justin Martyr, around the middle of the second century, describes in his First Apology (chapters 61 to 66) how those persuaded of the truth are taught, fast and pray, and are then led to water where they are born again in the name of God the Father, the Lord Jesus Christ and the Holy Spirit. He speaks of baptism as washing for the remission of sins and calls it illumination. Tertullian, writing on baptism around AD 200, explains the rite, the washing, anointing and laying on of hands, and warns against hasty baptism of young children, advising delay, though he does not treat the practice of infant baptism as unknown.
Step 4: Preparation and the rite
By the third century, the church had developed a period of instruction, the catechumenate, which could last for years. The Apostolic Tradition, a church order traditionally attributed to Hippolytus of Rome but with uncertain authorship and date, describes a three-year course, a ceremony of renunciation of Satan, immersion with three questions on belief in the Trinity, anointing and the laying on of hands. Many scholars use it with caution because the text exists in later forms and may be a composite.
In the fourth century, baptism was usually at Easter, followed by instruction in the mysteries, as in the lectures of Cyril of Jerusalem and Ambrose of Milan. The church thus treated baptism as the center of entry into the community, closely joined with the Eucharist.
Step 5: How the traditions read the evidence
Catholics and Orthodox hold that baptism truly forgives sins, including original sin where it is held, gives new birth and incorporates into the church. Lutherans and Anglicans hold similarly high views. Reformed churches hold that baptism is a sign and seal of the covenant of grace, conveying grace in those who believe or are chosen. Baptists hold that it is the believer’s public profession of faith and obedience, a sign and not a cause of salvation.
All accept the Trinitarian formula. The traditions differ over the mode. The Orthodox practice triple immersion. The Catholic Church uses pouring or immersion, and most Protestants use sprinkling, pouring or immersion according to their churches’ practice, while Baptists insist on immersion.
- Which meaning of baptism does this passage stress: cleansing, union with Christ, new birth, entry into the church?
- Is the passage describing what happened or giving a rule?
- What does the text say about faith, repentance and the gift of the Spirit?
- Who is baptized in the account, and does the passage mention children?
- What do early writers say about preparation for baptism?
- Which later teaching goes beyond what the text says?
Examples
The Ethiopian official
In Acts 8, the official reads Isaiah in his chariot, Philip explains it, and when they come to water he asks what hinders him from being baptized. They go down into the water, and Philip baptizes him. The account is often cited in discussions of baptism by immersion and of baptism after faith.
The Didache on water
The Didache says that if there is no running water, other water may be used, and if there is not enough, water may be poured three times on the head. Historians use this passage to show that the early church allowed a pouring mode, though immersion was probably the more common.
Easter baptism
In the fourth century in Milan, Ambrose baptized new Christians at the Easter vigil and then taught them the meaning of what they had received. The new Christians wore white garments for the following week. The pattern shows baptism joined to the celebration of the resurrection.
Different perspectives
Catholic
Baptism is the first sacrament, giving forgiveness of sin, new birth and incorporation into Christ and the church. The Catechism teaches that it is necessary for salvation, and that God is not bound by his sacraments, so that the unbaptized who seek God may be saved by baptism of desire or by martyrdom.
Orthodox
Baptism is a mystery of death and resurrection, joined with chrismation and the Eucharist in a single initiation. Orthodox writers emphasize triple immersion, the renunciation of Satan and the giving of the Holy Spirit. They hold that baptism is entrance into the church.
Protestant
Protestants agree on the importance of baptism and differ on its meaning. Lutherans and Anglicans stress its regenerating power. Reformed churches speak of a sign and seal of the covenant. Baptists and many others see it as the believer’s public profession. All base their views on the New Testament.
Scholarly view
Historians agree that baptism was the universal rite of entry from the earliest period and that its theology was rich. They differ about details such as the origin in proselyte baptism, the extent of infant baptism in the first two centuries, and the early forms of the rite as described in documents of disputed date.
Why it matters
Baptism is the one rite that nearly all Christians practice, so it can be a point of agreement as well as of disagreement. Reading the earliest evidence in order, before the later debates, helps a student see the range of New Testament meaning and the shared features of the early church’s practice.
Common misunderstandings
Misunderstanding: The New Testament describes only immersion.
Correction: Many texts suggest immersion, and the Greek word means to dip. The Didache allows pouring when water is scarce, and archaeological evidence is mixed. Churches differ on how far mode matters.
Misunderstanding: Baptism was unknown to the Jews before John.
Correction: Ritual washings were common in Jewish life, and some scholars see antecedents in proselyte baptism and in Qumran. John’s baptism was distinctive in being once-for-all and linked to repentance.
Misunderstanding: Early Christians were always baptized as infants.
Correction: The evidence is debated. Household baptisms may or may not have included infants. Tertullian argues for delaying baptism of children, and Origen refers to infant baptism as an apostolic practice. Scholars disagree about how widespread it was in the second century.
Misunderstanding: Baptism was a private ceremony in the early church.
Correction: It was a public act of the church, often at Easter, with the community present and with preparation and instruction before and after.
Knowledge check
What does Romans 6:3-4 teach about baptism?
It teaches that those baptized into Christ Jesus were baptized into his death and buried with him, so that as Christ was raised, they too might walk in newness of life. It presents baptism as union with Christ’s death and resurrection.
What does the Didache say about the way baptism is performed?
It says to baptize in the name of the Father, Son and Holy Spirit, preferably in running water, and if none, other water. If there is not enough for immersion, water may be poured three times on the head. It shows variety in mode.
How does Justin Martyr describe baptism?
He describes teaching, fasting and prayer, followed by being led to water and born again in the name of the Father, the Lord Jesus Christ and the Holy Spirit. He calls it a washing for the remission of sins and an illumination.
Name two points on which the traditions differ about baptism.
Examples: whether baptism itself conveys grace or is a sign of faith, whether infants may be baptized, whether immersion is required, and whether baptism is necessary for salvation. Any two such points are correct.
Think it through
- Why might the New Testament use so many images for one act?
- What are the strengths of seeing baptism as a public act of the community?
- How should a reader treat early texts of uncertain date and authorship?
- What difference does it make whether baptism is understood mainly as God’s act or the believer’s?
Independent assignment
Baptism texts in a table
In your notebook, make a table of ten New Testament passages on baptism, including Matthew 28:19, Acts 2:38, Acts 8:36-38, Acts 16:15, Romans 6:3-4, 1 Corinthians 12:13, Galatians 3:27, Colossians 2:12, Titus 3:5 and 1 Peter 3:21. For each, list what it says and what it does not say. Then write 250 to 350 words comparing how a Catholic, an Orthodox and a Baptist Christian would each use the table. Keep the work in your notebook.
Further study
- J. B. Lightfoot, ed., The Apostolic Fathers Read the Didache, chapters 7 to 9, on baptism and the Eucharist.
- Justin Martyr, The First Apology Read chapters 61 to 67 on baptism and the Sunday worship.
- Catholic Church, Catechism of the Catholic Church See the section on the sacrament of baptism.
- Martin Luther, The Small Catechism Read the section on baptism.
- Romans 6:4 Buried with him by baptism into death.
- Acts 2:38 Repent and be baptized.
- Matthew 28:19 Baptize in the name of the Father, Son and Holy Spirit.
- 1 Peter 3:21 Baptism now saves you.