Course 23 · Practice and Scholarship
Research Methodology
Learn how to ask a good research question, find and judge sources, cite them correctly, argue fairly and write a sourced theological paper.
Overview
This course teaches the methods of research and writing used in theological and historical scholarship. It covers how to ask a question that can be answered, how to find primary and secondary sources, how to judge whether a source can be trusted, how to read a scholarly argument critically, how to recognize bias including your own, and how to write a clear paper with accurate citations.
The course is practical. Each module ends with a short exercise, and the independent assignment is a complete research paper. It requires no thesis or dissertation. It is a paper of ordinary length on a limited question, written to the standard that a careful reader would expect. Citation is taught in the Chicago and Turabian style, which is common in theology and history, together with the conventions for citing the Bible, the Fathers and the church’s councils and creeds.
The course also treats the ethics of scholarship: honest use of sources, fair representation of opposing views, and the difference between quoting, paraphrasing and copying. It explains how to use free online resources such as scholarly journals, library catalogs, reference works and public domain texts, and how to tell reliable material from unreliable material on the internet.
No particular theological position is required or assumed. The aim is that a Catholic, Orthodox, Protestant or non-Christian reader could follow the argument, check the sources and see that opposing views have been treated fairly.
Objectives
- Describe the stages of a research project, from question to finished paper.
- Distinguish primary and secondary sources and give examples of each in theology and church history.
- Apply the basic questions of historical source criticism to a text: author, date, purpose, audience, transmission and reliability.
- Locate peer-reviewed literature and reference works using free and library tools, and judge their quality.
- Write a focused research question and a working thesis, and revise them as the research develops.
- Write a short literature review that summarizes and compares the main scholarly positions on a question.
- Cite sources correctly in Chicago and Turabian style, including the Bible, patristic works and creeds.
- Identify bias, including confirmation bias, in sources and in your own reading, and apply methods to reduce it.
- Evaluate a scholarly argument by examining its claims, evidence, assumptions and alternatives.
- Write a properly sourced theological research paper that follows the standards of academic integrity.
Course outline
Module 1 How Research Works
See the whole process of research in outline and set up the habits and tools that make it manageable.
Topics
- Academic research methods
- Research questions
- Academic integrity
Lessons
Module 2 Primary and Secondary Sources
Learn what each kind of source offers, how to read old texts critically, and how to judge their reliability.
Topics
- Primary and secondary sources
- Historical source criticism
- Source reliability
Lessons
Module 3 Finding and Reading Scholarship
Learn where scholarship lives, how it is reviewed, and how to read and summarize it.
Topics
- Peer-reviewed literature
- Literature reviews
- Academic research methods
Lessons
Module 4 Citation
Learn the Chicago and Turabian systems and the special conventions for the Bible and ancient texts.
Topics
- Chicago and Turabian citation
- Biblical citation conventions
- Academic integrity
Lessons
Module 5 Evaluating Arguments and Bias
Learn to read an argument critically, to see bias in others and in yourself, and to represent opponents fairly.
Topics
- Evaluating scholarly arguments
- Identifying bias
- Confirmation bias
Lessons
Module 6 Constructing Arguments and Writing
Learn to build a theological argument and write it clearly, from outline to revised draft.
Topics
- Constructing theological arguments
- Analytical writing
- Research questions
Lessons
Suggested schedule
| When | Work |
|---|---|
| Week 1 | Module 1: How Research Works |
| Week 2 | Module 2: Primary and Secondary Sources |
| Week 3 | Module 3: Finding and Reading Scholarship |
| Week 4 | Module 4: Citation |
| Week 5 | Module 5: Evaluating Arguments and Bias |
| Week 6 | Module 6: Constructing Arguments and Writing |
| Week 7 | Independent assignment and self-assessment |
Readings
Required
- Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy, Fallacies
A scholarly guide to logical fallacies. Use it to sharpen argument checking.
How to use it: Read to learn how fallacies are classified and how to avoid them in argument and in judging the arguments of others.
Read online (Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy) In the library - Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy, Philosophy of History
Raises the questions of how historians know the past, which matter for historical apologetics.
How to use it: Read selectively to understand the questions raised by writing history, including objectivity and explanation.
Read online (Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy) In the library - Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy, Hermeneutics
The history of theories of interpretation, from Scripture to modern philosophy.
How to use it: Read selectively for the problems of interpretation, which every researcher faces when reading an old text.
Read online (Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy) In the library - Gordon D. Fee and Douglas Stuart, How to Read the Bible for All Its Worth
A widely used guide to reading each biblical genre well. Excellent for Course 1.
How to use it: Read the chapters on interpretation to learn how context, genre and translation affect the reading of a biblical passage.
Find in a library or bookstore catalog (Open Library) In the library - Bruce M. Metzger and Bart D. Ehrman, The Text of the New Testament: Its Transmission, Corruption, and Restoration
The standard introduction to New Testament textual criticism, written by one believer and one skeptic.
How to use it: Read selectively as an example of careful scholarship about sources and their transmission.
Find in a library or bookstore catalog (Open Library) In the library - Richard Bauckham, Jesus and the Eyewitnesses
Argues that the Gospels rest on eyewitness testimony. Important and debated.
How to use it: Read selectively as an example of a scholarly argument that you can evaluate for evidence, assumptions and alternatives.
Find in a library or bookstore catalog (Open Library) In the library
Recommended
- Jaroslav Pelikan, The Christian Tradition: A History of the Development of Doctrine (5 volumes)
A major history of how doctrine developed across all three great traditions, to the modern age.
How to use it: Use as a model of historical writing on doctrine and as a reference for further reading.
Find in a library or bookstore catalog (Open Library) In the library - J. N. D. Kelly, Early Christian Doctrines
A standard account of how Christian doctrine took shape in the first centuries.
How to use it: Use as a model of a scholarly overview that cites primary sources for each claim.
Find in a library or bookstore catalog (Open Library) In the library - Alister E. McGrath, Christian Theology: An Introduction
A clear textbook that surveys doctrine and its history across traditions.
How to use it: Use as a reference to locate topics and the debates around them.
Find in a library or bookstore catalog (Open Library) In the library - Bruce M. Metzger, The Canon of the New Testament
A standard history of how the New Testament canon was formed.
How to use it: Read selectively as a model of the study of early sources and of how a scholar reasons from limited evidence.
Find in a library or bookstore catalog (Open Library) In the library - F. F. Bruce, The New Testament Documents: Are They Reliable?
A short classic defense of the historical reliability of the New Testament. Read it with a critical eye and compare it with newer work.
How to use it: Read critically as an example of an apologetic argument and compare it with more recent scholarship.
Find in a library or bookstore catalog (Open Library) In the library - Justo L. Gonzalez, The Story of Christianity
A standard one-volume or two-volume survey of church history from the apostles to the present.
How to use it: Use as a general survey to find topics and people for research.
Find in a library or bookstore catalog (Open Library) In the library - Philip Schaff and Henry Wace, eds., The Seven Ecumenical Councils (Nicene and Post-Nicene Fathers, Series 2, vol. 14)
The decrees and canons of Nicaea, Constantinople, Ephesus and Chalcedon with the surrounding history. The primary text for Courses 5, 6 and 9.
How to use it: Use as an example of a collection of primary sources and practice citing its documents.
Read online (Christian Classics Ethereal Library) In the library - J. B. Lightfoot, ed., The Apostolic Fathers
The earliest Christian writings after the New Testament, including Clement, Ignatius, Polycarp and the Didache.
How to use it: Use as practice for identifying the editor, translator, date and edition of a primary source.
Read online (Christian Classics Ethereal Library) In the library
Passages in the Scripture Study
- Proverbs 18:17 The first to present a case seems right until another comes and examines him, a text for hearing both sides.
- Proverbs 14:15 The simple believe anything, but the prudent consider their steps.
- Acts 17:11 The Bereans examined the Scriptures daily to see whether these things were so.
- 1 Thessalonians 5:21 Test everything and hold fast to what is good.
- 1 John 4:1 Test the spirits to see whether they are from God.
- Luke 1:3 Luke writes an orderly account after investigating everything carefully, an early model of historical method.
- John 21:24 A statement that attests the testimony of a witness, relevant to the study of sources.
- Exodus 20:16 The commandment against false witness, relevant to honesty in the use of sources.
- Ephesians 4:25 Speaking the truth to one another.
- Proverbs 12:15 The wise listen to counsel, a text for accepting criticism.
- Proverbs 27:6 Faithful are the wounds of a friend, a text for honest review of a draft.
- 2 Timothy 2:15 A worker who correctly handles the word of truth.
- Colossians 3:23 Work heartily, a text for careful scholarship.
- Romans 12:3 Think with sober judgment, a text on humility in scholarship.
Independent assignment
A Sourced Theological Research Paper
- Purpose
- To carry out a complete research project on a limited question and to write it up as a properly sourced paper that meets the standards taught in the course. A thesis or dissertation is not required.
- Instructions
- Choose a topic from any course in the program and narrow it into a research question that can be answered in a paper of the stated length. Write the question and a working thesis in one or two sentences each.
- Build a source list. Find at least four primary sources and at least six secondary sources, including at least three peer-reviewed articles or scholarly chapters. Record full bibliographic data for each as you go.
- Apply source criticism to each primary source: state its author, approximate date, audience, purpose, edition and translation. Note what the source can and cannot show.
- Write a literature review of 600 to 900 words that summarizes the main scholarly positions on your question, compares them and says where they disagree.
- Evaluate at least two scholarly arguments that bear on your question, stating each argument’s claims, evidence and assumptions, and noting any bias or weakness.
- Write an outline of the argument, with the thesis, the main steps, the evidence for each step and the strongest objection to the thesis.
- Write the draft. Use clear analytical prose, introduce each quotation, cite every borrowed fact or idea in Chicago footnotes, and cite the Bible and ancient texts according to the conventions taught in the course.
- Revise after waiting at least three days. Check every quotation against its source, check every footnote, and list the places where you changed your argument because of the evidence.
- Add a bibliography in Chicago style and a one-paragraph note that names the main limit of your research and one question that remains open.
- Required sources
- At least four primary sources.
- At least six secondary sources, including at least three peer-reviewed.
- At least four of the Scripture passages listed for this course, or the biblical texts that bear on your topic.
- Length and scope
- About 4,000 to 6,000 words, or fifteen to twenty pages, with footnotes and a bibliography. Keep it in your own notebook or document. Do not send it anywhere.
- Questions to address
- What exactly am I asking, and what would count as an answer?
- What do the primary sources say, and how reliable are they?
- What do scholars say, and where do they disagree?
- What are my assumptions and biases, and how have I tried to reduce their effect?
- What is the strongest objection to my thesis, and how do I respond?
- Expected output
- A research paper with a question, thesis, literature review, source criticism, argument, conclusion, footnotes and a bibliography in Chicago style.
- How it will be evaluated
- It states a clear and answerable question and a thesis.
- It uses primary and secondary sources appropriately and applies source criticism.
- It cites sources accurately and consistently, including the Bible and ancient texts.
- It represents opposing scholarly views fairly.
- It builds a logical argument and answers its strongest objection.
- It is clearly written, honestly limited and free of plagiarism.
- Common mistakes to avoid
- Choosing a topic too broad for the paper.
- Relying on a single secondary source or on popular websites.
- Quoting a source from memory or from another author’s quotation without checking.
- Using only sources that agree with the thesis.
- Presenting a paraphrase without a citation, or paraphrasing so closely that it is effectively copying.
Knowledge check and self-assessment
What is the difference between a primary source and a secondary source?
A primary source comes from the time and people under study: for example a letter of Ignatius, the acts of a council or a creed. A secondary source is a later work that interprets or describes primary sources: for example a scholarly book on Ignatius. The same text may be primary for one question and secondary for another. A modern history of doctrine is secondary for the fourth century but primary for the study of twentieth century scholarship.
What are the basic questions of historical source criticism?
Who wrote the source, when and where, for whom, and why? How was it transmitted, and are there variants or later additions? What did the author know, and could the author have known it? What do the other sources say? What does the source reveal that the author did not intend to show? Source criticism does not assume that a source is false, only that its claims need testing.
What does peer review do, and what does it not do?
Peer review sends a manuscript to experts, who judge whether it is competent, original and appropriately argued before it is published. It improves quality and filters out many weak works. It does not guarantee that the conclusions are true. Reviewers can share the same assumptions, journals have particular commitments, and mistakes get through. Peer-reviewed work is a good starting point, not the end of evaluation.
What is a literature review and what is its purpose?
A literature review is a summary and comparison of what scholars have written on a question. It shows the main positions, how they differ, what evidence each uses, and where a gap or disagreement remains. Its purpose is to place your question in the existing discussion, prevent you from repeating what is known, and give the reader a fair map. It is organized by issue or position, not as a list of books.
How are the Bible and ancient texts cited in Chicago style?
Biblical citations name the book, chapter and verse, for example Romans 8:28, and the first citation should name the translation used. Books are usually abbreviated in notes according to the Chicago manual and written in full in the text. Standard collections such as the Ante-Nicene Fathers are cited by the work, book and chapter, with the series, volume, editor and page where relevant. Notes should let the reader find the passage in a standard edition.
What is confirmation bias, and how can a researcher reduce it?
Confirmation bias is the tendency to look for, remember and favor evidence that supports what one already thinks, and to discount evidence against it. A researcher can reduce it by stating in advance what would change the conclusion, seeking out the strongest opposing scholarship, reading sources from outside one’s own tradition, asking a reader to challenge the draft, and keeping a record of evidence that does not fit.
How do you evaluate a scholarly argument?
Identify its main claim and the steps leading to it. Check the evidence for each step: is it from reliable sources, accurately reported and sufficient? Identify the assumptions it relies on, especially those it does not defend. Ask whether alternative explanations were considered, and whether the author treats opponents fairly. Look for fallacies. Then state what the argument shows, what it does not, and whether the conclusion goes further than the evidence.
What counts as plagiarism, and how can it be avoided?
Plagiarism is presenting someone else’s words or ideas as one’s own. It includes copying without quotation marks, paraphrasing without a citation, and closely rewriting a passage with only a few words changed. It is avoided by taking careful notes that separate quotation from paraphrase, citing every source of a fact, idea or phrase that is not common knowledge, and quoting directly when the exact wording matters.
Judge your own progress
- When you finish the modules, answer the knowledge questions from memory, without notes. Aim for 70 percent or better; if you score lower, reread the relevant module and try again.
- Write your research paper (the independent assignment). Wait three days, reread it, and check every quotation and footnote against its source.
- Check your work against the evaluation criteria in the assignment. Rate each criterion as strong, adequate or weak and write one sentence on how you would improve each weak one.
- Return to the key ideas of the course after 1 day, 7 days, 30 days and 90 days. At each point, explain aloud the steps of a research project and how you would test the reliability of a source.
- You can distinguish source types, apply source criticism and cite in Chicago style without notes.
- You can evaluate an argument fairly and name your own biases and the steps taken to reduce them.
- Your paper is sourced, honest about its limits and clearly written.