Program / Course 23: Research Methodology / Lesson 2.3
What you will learn
- Explain why every translation is an interpretation and what that means for arguments built on one English word.
- Tell a critical edition from a reprint, a popular edition and an anthology.
- Choose a translation suitable for a research purpose and record it accurately.
- Use simple methods to check a doubtful word or phrase without knowing the original language.
The big idea
Most students read ancient texts in English, but the ancient writers wrote in Greek, Latin, Hebrew, Syriac and other languages. A translator must choose among possible meanings, and no translation carries over every nuance. Editions also differ: an old printing may rest on a weak text, while a critical edition compares manuscripts. A careful researcher therefore names the translation and edition used, avoids resting an argument on a single English word, and checks key passages in more than one rendering.
Key terms
- Translation
- A version of a text in a different language, produced by a translator who makes choices about meaning and style.
- Edition
- A particular published form of a text, with its own editor, introduction, notes and sometimes its own reading of disputed words.
- Critical edition
- An edition in which an editor compares manuscripts and records variant readings, giving the most probable original text.
- Formal equivalence
- A translation approach that follows the structure and wording of the original closely, sometimes at the cost of natural English.
- Dynamic or functional equivalence
- A translation approach that aims to give the sense in natural English, even if the wording departs from the original.
- Paraphrase Bible
- A free rendering that restates the sense in the translator’s own words. It is useful for reading but not for close argument.
- Anthology
- A collection of selected texts or extracts, which may omit context.
- Original language
- The language in which a text was first written, such as Greek for the New Testament or Hebrew for most of the Old Testament.
Background
Translation is hard because languages do not match word for word. A Greek word may have a range of meanings that no single English word covers. Greek has different tenses and cases than English, and ancient authors play on sounds and meanings that disappear in translation. Translators must also decide how literally to render the original, and different answers produce differently useful translations. A close rendering may be awkward and an easy one may hide the structure of the Greek.
The King James Version of 1611 is an example of an influential translation made in a particular age, from the Hebrew and Greek texts then available. Modern translations draw on earlier manuscripts and a larger body of scholarship. Catholic, Orthodox and Protestant communities use different translations, in part because they differ in the books they accept and in the traditions of reading they follow. A researcher must know which text was in the hand of the writer being studied. A Father who read the Greek Old Testament, the Septuagint, cites wording that differs from the Hebrew-based text in many English Bibles.
Editions matter as much as translations. Many ancient texts exist in nineteenth century English collections that are now in the public domain and easy to find online. These are valuable and widely cited, but they often rest on older Greek or Latin texts that have since been improved, and their English can be dated. Modern critical editions and translations usually give better texts and notes. The point is not to dismiss the old, but to know what you are holding.
Step-by-step explanation
Step 1: Identify exactly what you are reading
Find the title page and write down the author, the translator or editor, the series, the place, the publisher, the year and the edition. For online texts, record where the text came from and which printed edition it reproduces, if stated.
If you cannot tell who translated a text or on what Greek or Latin edition it rests, treat it with caution and look for a better copy.
Step 2: Know the translation’s philosophy
Read the translator’s preface. It will say whether the aim was a close rendering or a readable one. A formal equivalence translation is generally better for close study of wording, and a functional translation is often better for grasping the sense of a long passage. Using both is a good habit.
Free paraphrases are enjoyable but should not be used as evidence in an argument about wording.
Step 3: Do not build an argument on one English word
Suppose an English translation uses a particular word in a passage. The Greek word behind it may be translated differently in other places, and the English word may carry associations the Greek lacks. Claims such as ‘the Bible uses the word X’ or ‘Augustine says Y’ can fail when the original is checked.
Compare at least two translations. Consult a lexicon or a scholarly commentary that discusses the word. If the argument depends on the word, say so, and cite the scholarship that supports your reading.
Step 4: Learn some tools for checking, even without the language
Parallel texts and interlinear editions show the original beside English. Concordances show where a word occurs. Lexicons give ranges of meaning, and good commentaries discuss disputed words. Many such tools are available free online or in libraries.
You do not need to master Greek to use them with care. You do need to avoid claims about the Greek that you cannot support, and to say honestly when you are relying on a scholar’s judgment.
Step 5: Cite the translation, and say when you depart from it
Name the translation in your notes. If you alter a translation or make your own, say so. If you quote a modern translation, remember that it is a copyrighted work and keep quotations short and cited.
In your paper, tell the reader where the argument depends on the translation. A reader can then judge the point, and you have been honest about the limit.
- Which translation am I reading, and who made it?
- Is the English text based on a critical edition or an older text?
- What does the translator’s preface say about the aim?
- Does my argument depend on one English word, and have I checked it?
- Which language did the ancient author read, and which Bible did he use?
- How would a second translation change what I have written?
Examples
Different versions of the Old Testament
A Greek-speaking Father such as Irenaeus or Athanasius read the Old Testament in the Septuagint, a Greek translation made before the time of Christ. Where the Septuagint differs from the Hebrew text behind most modern Protestant Bibles, a Father’s argument may rest on wording that an English reader of a Hebrew-based Bible will not find.
An older English collection
The Ante-Nicene Fathers and Nicene and Post-Nicene Fathers series, edited in the nineteenth century, are widely used and are in the public domain. Scholars still cite them, but many of the translations are loose by modern standards, so a careful paper checks key passages in a newer translation or in the original.
An anthology
A book of selected readings from the Fathers is a convenient place to begin. A passage lifted from its context may suggest more than the whole work says, so the researcher goes back to the full text.
A single word
A student concludes from an English phrase that an author ‘taught’ something, when the Greek verb is more general and might better be rendered ‘said’ or ‘spoke of’. The argument fails if the claim rested only on the English verb. (A constructed example of the risk.)
Different perspectives
Catholic
Catholics have traditionally used the Latin Vulgate as the Church’s historic Latin Bible, and since the twentieth century also translations from the Hebrew and Greek, which the Church encourages. Catholic Bibles include the deuterocanonical books. A Catholic researcher studying a medieval writer will often need to know the Vulgate wording he used.
Orthodox
The Orthodox Church has long used the Septuagint as its Old Testament, and the Greek New Testament in the Greek-speaking world. Orthodox English translations often follow the Septuagint. A researcher comparing a Greek Father to a modern Protestant Bible must remember this difference.
Protestant
Protestant Bibles generally follow the Hebrew text for the Old Testament, and in many cases leave out the deuterocanonical books or place them in a separate section. Protestants have produced many translations, from the King James Version to a range of modern ones, with ongoing debate about literal and dynamic approaches. Many Protestant scholars have contributed critical editions of the Greek New Testament.
Secular and Jewish scholarship
Academic translators generally aim to give the most accurate rendering they can, with notes on difficulties. Jewish translations of the Hebrew Scriptures reflect Jewish tradition of reading, and often differ from Christian translations at important points. A researcher comparing across traditions should read the Jewish versions as such.
Why it matters
A great many arguments in popular theology fail at this step. They rest on an English word that does not carry the weight put on it, or on an old translation of uncertain quality, or on a quotation that a modern edition does not support. Care with translation and edition keeps you honest about what you know and what you are trusting others to know for you.
Common misunderstandings
Misunderstanding: A translation is just the original in another language.
Correction: Every translation is a series of interpretive choices. It can be excellent and faithful but cannot be identical. Where the argument turns on exact wording, consult the original language or a scholar who does.
Misunderstanding: The oldest English translation is the most accurate.
Correction: Older translations often rest on less complete manuscript evidence and on older English. They may be admired for beauty or influence, but accuracy depends on the text and the translator. The King James Version is treasured, and it too reflects its time.
Misunderstanding: Public domain editions online are as good as any.
Correction: They are valuable and free, but they may reproduce outdated texts. Check the date and editor, and compare key passages with a modern edition.
Misunderstanding: I cannot say anything about a Greek word if I do not read Greek.
Correction: You can say what scholars say about it and cite them. What you should avoid is claiming certainty about the Greek on your own.
Knowledge check
Why is every translation an interpretation?
Languages do not match word for word. A word in the original may have several meanings, and grammar, tense and wordplay differ. The translator must decide which meaning to give and how literally to render the structure. Different decisions produce different translations, each of which can be defensible, so no English version fully captures the original.
What is a critical edition?
A critical edition is a scholarly edition in which the editor compares surviving manuscripts and records the variant readings in notes, giving the text judged most likely to be original. It is more reliable for close study than a reprint of an older printed text, and it shows where the text is uncertain.
What should you do before building an argument on one English word?
Compare at least two translations, consult a lexicon or a scholarly commentary on the original word, and check whether the author uses the word elsewhere. If the argument depends on the word, say so in the paper and cite the scholarship. Without these checks, the argument may rest on a feature of English, not of the original.
Why do the Septuagint and the Hebrew-based Old Testament matter in studying the Fathers?
Many Greek-speaking Fathers read the Old Testament in the Septuagint, a Greek translation, which differs in places from the Hebrew text behind most modern Protestant Bibles. A Father’s argument may depend on wording found only in the Greek, so a researcher must know which text the Father used.
Think it through
- Pick a verse and compare it in two translations. Where do they differ, and why?
- Which Bible did you grow up with? How might it shape what you expect an ancient author to say?
- What are the advantages of reading an old, beautiful translation, and what risks come with it in research?
- What does it mean to be honest about relying on a scholar’s judgment about a language you do not read?
Independent assignment
Comparing translations
In your own notebook, choose a short passage of a patristic or conciliar text from the library and find it in two different English translations, or find a short biblical passage in two translations. Write about 300 words. Record each translation and edition in full. List every difference in wording that might change the sense, say which one you would trust for close argument and why, and name one claim you could not safely make on the basis of the English alone. Do not send this to anyone.
Further study
- J. B. Lightfoot, ed., The Apostolic Fathers Check which translation and edition you are using and read the introductions.
- Philip Schaff and Henry Wace, eds., The Seven Ecumenical Councils (Nicene and Post-Nicene Fathers, Series 2, vol. 14) Note how translation affects the reading of technical terms in conciliar texts.
- Bruce M. Metzger and Bart D. Ehrman, The Text of the New Testament: Its Transmission, Corruption, and Restoration Read selectively on versions and manuscripts.
- Gordon D. Fee and Douglas Stuart, How to Read the Bible for All Its Worth Read the chapters on translations to see how translators choose and how that affects the reader.
- Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy, Hermeneutics Read selectively on the problems of interpretation across languages and cultures.
- Acts 17:11 The Bereans examined the Scriptures daily.
- 2 Timothy 2:15 Handling the word of truth correctly.