Skip to content

Course 11 · Lesson 2.1

Ministry in the New Testament: apostles, elders, overseers and deacons

12 minute read

Lessons in this course

Course 11 outline

Module 1: What the Church Is

  1. Biblical images of the church: body, people, temple and bride
  2. One, holy, catholic and apostolic: the four marks
  3. The mission of the church
  4. The visible and invisible church in Augustine, the Reformers and the East

Module 2: Ministry and Apostolic Succession

  1. Ministry in the New Testament: apostles, elders, overseers and deacons
  2. The bishop in the early church: Clement, Ignatius and Irenaeus
  3. Apostolic succession: three meanings (a line of bishops, the teaching, the mission)
  4. Ordination in the Catholic, Orthodox and Protestant traditions

Module 3: Scripture, Tradition and Church Authority

  1. Scripture and tradition in the early church
  2. The Catholic account: Scripture, tradition and the magisterium
  3. The Orthodox account: the living tradition of the church
  4. The Reformation and the question of sola scriptura

Module 4: Three Systems of Authority

  1. The bishop of Rome in early history
  2. Papal primacy and infallibility in Catholic teaching
  3. Orthodox conciliarity and the role of the patriarchs
  4. Protestant principles of authority: Scripture, confessions and the priesthood of believers
  5. The strongest objections each tradition raises against the others

Module 5: Sacramental Theology

  1. Mystery and sacrament: the words and their history
  2. Augustine and the definition of a sacrament
  3. How many sacraments? Seven, two, or none
  4. Validity, efficacy and the role of faith

Module 6: Baptism and the Eucharist

  1. Baptism in Scripture and the early church
  2. Infant baptism and believers baptism
  3. The Eucharist in the early church
  4. Real presence: transubstantiation, the Orthodox mystery, Lutheran, Reformed and memorial views

Module 7: Reconciliation and Liturgical Worship

  1. The forgiveness of sins in Scripture
  2. Confession and penance in the history of the church
  3. Confession across the traditions: Catholic, Orthodox, Lutheran and Reformed practice
  4. Liturgy, word and table, and the church year
  5. Worship without a fixed liturgy and its principles

Module 8: Schism and Christian Unity

  1. Early schisms: the Donatists and the churches after Chalcedon
  2. East and West: the long division and the events of 1054
  3. The Reformation divisions
  4. Ecumenism and the prospects for unity

All courses

Program / Course 11: Church, Sacraments, and Authority / Lesson 2.1

What you will learn

  • Identify the main offices and roles named in the New Testament: apostles, prophets, teachers, elders, overseers and deacons.
  • Explain what the evidence does and does not show about how churches were governed in the first century.
  • Describe why Catholic, Orthodox and Protestant readers interpret the same texts differently.
  • Separate what the texts say from what later traditions build upon them.

The big idea

The New Testament names several kinds of leaders: apostles, prophets, teachers, elders, overseers and deacons. It does not give one blueprint for church government, and scholars debate how the offices were organized and how they developed. Catholic and Orthodox Christians read the evidence as the early form of a ministry that became the threefold order of bishop, presbyter and deacon. Many Protestants read it as support for a ministry of elders or for a plain pastoral ministry. All sides must deal with the same limited texts.

Key terms

Apostle
From a Greek word meaning one who is sent. In the New Testament it names the Twelve and some others, including Paul, who were commissioned by the risen Christ.
Presbyter (elder)
From the Greek presbyteros, meaning older man. An elder is a leader in a local church. The English word priest developed from the same Greek word.
Episkopos (overseer or bishop)
A Greek word meaning one who oversees. It is translated overseer or bishop.
Diakonos (deacon)
A Greek word meaning servant. In some passages it names a recognized office.
Charism
A gift of the Spirit for the good of the church, such as teaching or prophecy.
Laying on of hands
A gesture used in the New Testament to bless, to heal and to commission people for service.
Pastoral Epistles
The letters called 1 and 2 Timothy and Titus, which give instructions about church leadership.

Background

The first Christians did not start with a formal organization. Jesus chose twelve disciples and gave them a special place (Mark 3:14-15). After his resurrection he sent them out (Matthew 28:19; John 20:21). Within a few decades, churches in many cities had recognized leaders. The New Testament shows that process in progress. It contains different pictures from different places and times, and it was not written to settle later disputes.

Two things need to be kept apart. One is what the texts say. The other is what each tradition concludes from them. The Catholic Church, the Orthodox Church and the Protestant churches agree that Christ gave his church ministers. They disagree about whether he fixed one form, whether bishops are a separate order from presbyters, and what authority they have. Honest study begins by laying out the texts.

Step-by-step explanation

Step 1: Apostles

The Twelve are the central group (Mark 3:14; Luke 6:13). After Judas’s death Matthias is chosen to take his place (Acts 1:21-26). Paul claims the title apostle on the basis of his meeting with the risen Lord (1 Corinthians 15:8-9; Galatians 1:1). Others, such as Barnabas (Acts 14:14), are also called apostles, so the word has a wider use than the Twelve.

Christians agree that the apostles had a unique role as witnesses of the resurrection and founders of the church (Ephesians 2:20). The question for later centuries is whether any ministry continues their authority. Catholics and Orthodox hold that bishops succeed to the apostles’ governing role. Protestants generally hold that the apostles’ teaching continues in Scripture and that their foundational office does not pass to others.

Step 2: Prophets, teachers and other gifts

In some churches, leadership rested on gifts of the Spirit. Paul lists apostles, prophets and teachers in 1 Corinthians 12:28 and Ephesians 4:11 adds evangelists and pastors. The Didache, a short early Christian text of uncertain date (often placed in the late first or early second century), describes itinerant prophets and teachers alongside local bishops and deacons. This shows that early church life was not limited to formal offices.

Modern scholars debate how the charismatic and the local offices related. Some earlier scholars saw a conflict between spirit and office, but most now think the two overlapped and cooperated.

Step 3: Elders and overseers

Acts shows Paul and Barnabas appointing elders in each church (Acts 14:23) and Paul calling together the elders of Ephesus and telling them that the Holy Spirit has made them overseers (Acts 20:17, 28). In Titus 1:5-7 the same people appear to be called elders and overseers. Philippians 1:1 greets overseers and deacons. These passages suggest that in some places the terms elder and overseer described the same group of leaders.

That observation is shared by most scholars, including Catholic and Orthodox ones. What follows from it is disputed. Some Protestants conclude that the New Testament knows only one ministry of elders or pastors, and that a separate office of bishop is a later addition. Catholic and Orthodox scholars reply that the pattern was in development, with individuals such as Timothy and Titus acting as delegates of the apostle with wide oversight, and that by the early second century a single bishop at the head of a presbytery was common, at least in some places. When this transition occurred is debated.

Step 4: Deacons

Philippians 1:1 and 1 Timothy 3:8-13 speak of deacons. The seven chosen in Acts 6:1-6 to serve tables are traditionally seen as the first deacons, although Acts does not use the title. Stephen and Philip preached and baptized (Acts 6 to 8), so the work was not only practical. Romans 16:1 calls Phoebe a deacon of the church at Cenchreae.

Traditions differ on the meaning of Phoebe’s title. Some read it as an ordained office for women, as in the later Eastern order of deaconesses. Others read it as a general word for servant. The question of women in ministry is large and the traditions are divided on it, and this course does not try to settle it.

Step 5: Appointing and commissioning

Ministers were set apart by prayer and the laying on of hands (Acts 6:6; 13:3; 1 Timothy 4:14; 2 Timothy 1:6). Paul tells Timothy to entrust what he has heard to faithful people who will teach others (2 Timothy 2:2). Titus is told to appoint elders (Titus 1:5). These passages show that leaders in the second generation were chosen and commissioned by those before them. Catholic and Orthodox readers see here the root of apostolic succession. Many Protestant readers see here the practice of orderly appointment and teaching without requiring a fixed line of bishops.

  1. Which offices does this text name, and what does each do?
  2. Is the same person called more than one title in a single passage?
  3. Who appoints the leaders, and how?
  4. Does the passage describe what happened in one place or give a rule for all churches?
  5. What part of the traditional teaching goes beyond what the text says?
  6. How would a Catholic, an Orthodox and a Protestant reader each respond to the passage?

Examples

Ephesus in Acts 20

Paul calls the elders of Ephesus and says the Holy Spirit made them overseers to feed the church of God. In one speech the same leaders are called both elders and overseers. This passage is often used by those who see no distinction between the two in the first generation.

Timothy and Titus

Timothy in Ephesus and Titus in Crete act as apostolic delegates. They are told to appoint elders, to correct false teaching and to oversee the churches. Catholic and Orthodox readers see here a form of the episcopal office. Others see temporary assistants to Paul and not permanent bishops.

Phoebe

Paul commends Phoebe, a deacon of the church at Cenchreae and a helper of many (Romans 16:1-2). Traditions argue over whether she held an office or was described as a servant in general. The historical evidence for later female deacons in the East is clearer than the evidence for her own role.

Different perspectives

Catholic

The Catholic Church teaches that Christ instituted a ministry with the apostles, and that the bishops are their successors. The Council of Trent taught that the hierarchy of bishops, priests and deacons is of divine institution. Catholic scholars acknowledge that the New Testament terms are fluid and that the threefold ministry appears in clear form in the early second century.

Orthodox

The Orthodox Church holds the threefold ministry of bishop, presbyter and deacon as received from the apostles. Orthodox theologians stress that the bishop presides over the eucharistic community and that the ministry cannot be understood apart from the gathered church. They do not usually argue from isolated proof texts but from the life of the early church.

Protestant

Protestant churches differ. Presbyterians and Reformed churches see rule by elders as the New Testament pattern. Lutherans hold that the one ministry of Word and sacrament may be organized in different ways. Anglicans retain bishops, priests and deacons, though many Anglicans say that the episcopal form is a gift and not essential to the existence of the church. Baptists and others stress the local congregation under its pastors and deacons.

Scholarly view

Most historians agree that elder and overseer were close in meaning in the first-century texts, that some churches had a group of leaders and not a single head, and that a single bishop at the head of a presbytery became common in many places by the early second century. The speed and manner of the change are discussed, and scholars of different faiths reach different conclusions.

Why it matters

Disputes over who may teach, baptize, celebrate the Eucharist and ordain others go back to what the New Testament shows about ministry. Reading the texts carefully shows how much they say and how much they leave open. A student who can state both what is clear and what is debated will read later arguments about bishops, priests and pastors with less confusion.

Common misunderstandings

Misunderstanding: The New Testament describes the same church government that exists in the Catholic Church today.

Correction: The New Testament does not describe the later structure in its developed form. Catholic teaching holds that the structure grows from the apostolic ministry. Historians see a development over several decades.

Misunderstanding: Protestants think the New Testament has no leadership.

Correction: Protestants point to elders, overseers and deacons in the New Testament. They differ from Catholics and Orthodox on whether a distinct episcopal office is of divine institution.

Misunderstanding: Priest and presbyter are unrelated words.

Correction: In English, priest is historically a shortened form of presbyter. In Greek and Latin, the priestly word (hiereus, sacerdos) is different. The relationship is discussed in later lessons.

Misunderstanding: The authorship of the Pastoral Epistles is certain.

Correction: The traditional view that Paul wrote them is held by many. Many scholars hold that they were written by a follower of Paul after his death. Which view is correct affects the dating of the offices they describe.

Knowledge check

What evidence suggests that elder and overseer were used for the same people in some New Testament texts?

In Acts 20 Paul calls the elders of Ephesus and says they were made overseers. In Titus 1:5-7 the qualifications of the elder and of the overseer appear in one list. This overlap is widely accepted by scholars of different traditions.

Who were Timothy and Titus, and how do traditions read their role?

They were co-workers of Paul. In 1 Timothy and Titus they oversee churches, appoint elders and correct false teaching. Catholic and Orthodox readers see an early form of episcopal ministry. Many Protestants see temporary delegates acting for Paul.

Why does the question of apostolic succession arise from 2 Timothy 2:2?

The verse speaks of a chain: Paul to Timothy, Timothy to faithful people, who will teach others. Catholic and Orthodox readers take it as a root of handing on ministry through ordination. Many Protestants take it as a handing on of teaching.

What is one debated point about deacons in the New Testament?

Whether Phoebe in Romans 16:1 held a formal office as a deacon or was described as a servant of the church. Whether the Seven in Acts 6 were deacons is also debated, since Acts does not give them that title.

Think it through

  1. Why might early churches have had different forms of leadership in different cities?
  2. How much weight should a tradition give to practices that developed after the New Testament but before the fourth century?
  3. Can a church faithfully follow the New Testament without copying its organization exactly?
  4. Which of the roles named in this lesson would you most like to study further, and why?

Independent assignment

A table of ministry texts

In your notebook, make a table of at least eight passages: Acts 6:1-6, Acts 14:23, Acts 20:17-28, Philippians 1:1, 1 Timothy 3:1-13, Titus 1:5-9, 2 Timothy 2:2 and Romans 16:1. For each, record the titles used, who appoints, and what the passage does and does not prove. Then write 250 to 350 words explaining how a Catholic, an Orthodox and a Protestant reader would each use the table. Keep the work in your notebook.

Further study